Character strengths, a key component of positive psychology, have been extensively studied in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) societies, where they have been linked to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and reduced depressive symptoms [1–5]. Character strengths also serve as protective factors against psychological distress, fostering resilience and coping mechanisms [6–8]. However, the applicability of these findings in non-WEIRD contexts, particularly in low-income settings with high adversity, remains unclear [9]. This research gap raises critical questions about whether the benefits of character strengths extend beyond affluent and well-resourced environments.

Existing studies on psychological well-being in low-income settings have produced paradoxical findings. While economic hardship is often associated with heightened psychological distress [10], some studies suggest that well-being levels among impoverished populations may be higher than expected [11–13]. This paradox underscores the importance of identifying psychological assets, such as character strengths, that may mitigate the adverse effects of poverty. Despite the apparent relevance of character strengths in such contexts, research in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) remains scarce. A systematic review by Jeffery-Schwikkard et al. found that only 18 out of 164 studies examined the effects of character strengths on mental health in LMICs [14]. Similarly, Leventhal et al. analyzed strengths-based resiliency programs for adolescent girls’ emotional, social, physical, and educational well-being in one of the poorest cities in India [15], yet broader investigations into character strengths use within impoverished urban communities remain limited.

The Philippines presents a compelling setting for studying character strengths use in adversity due to its significant urban population, with a substantial proportion residing in informal settlements. As of 2020, approximately 54% of the population lived in urban areas, and an estimated 43% of urban residents resided in slums [16,17]. According to UN-Habitat, slum households are defined by the absence of one or more essential living conditions: durable housing, access to clean water and sanitation, sufficient living space, and secure tenure [18]. These conditions contribute to chronic psychological distress, including depression and anxiety [19]. Given this context, understanding the role of character strengths in promoting well-being among slum residents is of significant theoretical and practical importance.

Several theoretical frameworks support the relevance of character strengths in high-adversity contexts. The capability approach defines well-being as the freedom to achieve valued forms of living [20,21]; in this view, character strengths can be seen as internal capabilities that enable meaningful action despite external constraints. Similarly, resilience theory emphasizes the importance of psychological assets in navigating chronic adversity [22]. Socioecological models also highlight the interaction between individual traits and broader systems such as family, community, and culture that influence how strengths are expressed and supported [23]. Together, these theories can justify a deeper examination of psychological strengths in marginalized urban settings.

Therefore, this study investigates the relationship between character strengths use and psychological well-being among slum dwellers in the Philippines. Building on findings from WEIRD societies, the study tests the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Character strengths use will be positively associated with psychological well-being among slum residents.

Hypothesis 2: Character strengths use will remain a significant predictor of psychological well-being, even after controlling for demographic variables and psychological distress.

Hypothesis 3 (Exploratory): Psychological distress may moderate the relationship between strengths use and well-being, such that the positive association between strengths use and well-being may weaken at higher levels of distress.

By testing these hypotheses, this study aims to inform the development of cost-effective, strengths-based mental health strategies tailored to residents of high-adversity urban environments.

A total of 120 slum dwellers participated in the study. The mean age was 33.37 years (SD = 12.15, range = 18–79). The majority of participants were female (88.3%, n = 106), with 9.2% (n = 11) identifying as male and 2.5% (n = 3) identifying as other genders. Additional demographic characteristics, satisfaction with 12 life domains, and meaning in life are summarized in Table 1.

Among the 12 life domains assessed, participants reported the highest levels of satisfaction in family (Mean = 6.35, SD = 1.19), followed by self-satisfaction (Mean = 5.69, SD = 1.37) and food satisfaction (Mean = 5.53, SD = 1.46). Regarding meaning in life, the most frequently cited sources were children’s education (45.0%) and providing a better life for their family (20.0%), underscoring the central role of family in participants’ sense of purpose.

This study aimed to examine the relationship between character strengths use and psychological well-being among slum dwellers in the Philippines, while also considering the impact of psychological distress in slum environments. Consistent with Hypothesis 1, greater use of character strengths was positively associated with psychological well-being. Hypothesis 2 was also supported, as this association remained significant even after controlling for demographic factors and psychological distress. By contrast, the exploratory Hypothesis 3 was not supported; instead, the positive association between strengths use and well-being remained consistent across different levels of distress. Taken together, these results indicate a stable link between character strengths use and psychological well-being in this high-adversity context, paralleling findings from WEIRD societies and challenging the assumption that living in slums necessarily correlates with lower mental health [36].

One explanation for these findings is the universal role of character strengths in fostering well-being. As internal psychological assets, character strengths remain accessible regardless of living conditions. Previous research has demonstrated that strengths use is linked to well-being among individuals facing diverse adversities, such as chronic illness [37], homelessness [38], visual impairments [39], and autism [40]. Studies across different cultural settings have also shown that strengths use contributes to both subjective and psychological well-being [41–43]. By extending these findings to slum communities, this study reinforces the notion that character strengths serve as fundamental psychological resources for well-being across diverse socioeconomic settings.

Beyond promoting well-being, character strengths may act as a psychological buffer against adversity. Research has consistently demonstrated that character strengths function as a protective factor against stress, buffering individuals from its negative psychological effects and promoting resilience [44–48]. Given these findings, it is reasonable to hypothesize that character strengths would similarly serve as a protective factor in high-stress environments, such as urban slums, where chronic adversity and socio-economic challenges place residents at elevated risk for mental health difficulties. Additionally, Niemiec emphasizes that character strengths play a dual role in mental health by both fostering well-being and mitigating suffering, reinforcing the idea that strengths use is not merely beneficial but essential in high-adversity urban settings [49].

These findings are also consistent with the Dual-Factor Model of Mental Health, which posits that psychological well-being and distress are not mutually exclusive but can coexist [50–52]. Traditional models often view well-being and distress as opposite ends of a continuum, implying that higher distress necessarily corresponds to lower well-being. However, the dual-factor perspective suggests that individuals can experience both flourishing and psychological distress simultaneously. In the context of slum communities, ongoing structural challenges—such as unstable housing, high crime rates, and economic precarity—create persistent psychological stress, as reflected in the high levels of distress reported by participants. However, their ability to utilize character strengths may have contributed to their well-being, demonstrating that flourishing is possible even in extreme hardship.

This interpretation is further supported by exploratory comparisons with previous studies. Notably, despite experiencing severe adversity, participants’ flourishing scores appeared comparable to or even slightly higher than those of Filipino students from affluent private institutions [29]. Specifically, the current sample (Mean = 46.70, SD = 4.75) reported higher flourishing than Filipino high school students (Mean = 43.92, SD = 7.10; Cohen’s d ≈ 0.46) and undergraduate students (Mean = 44.97, SD = 6.32; Cohen’s d ≈ 0.31). These small-to-moderate effect sizes highlight that high levels of psychological well-being can emerge even in contexts of significant adversity, further reinforcing the dual-factor model’s assertion that well-being and distress can coexist.

These insights offer valuable implications for interventions aimed at enhancing psychological well-being in slum communities. Strengths-based programs provide a cost-effective and sustainable approach, as character strengths are internal assets that require no financial investment, making them particularly valuable in resource-limited settings. Given their demonstrated buffering effects, interventions should prioritize strengths identification and development to foster resilience. Additionally, a dual-factor approach should be integrated into mental health initiatives, addressing both distress reduction and well-being promotion to create more comprehensive support systems.

Beyond individual strengths use, this study found that family played a central role in participants’ well-being. Family satisfaction was the highest among all life domains, and the primary sources of meaning centered on children’s education and providing a better future for loved ones. These findings align with the cultural value of kapwa (shared identity) and utang na loob (reciprocal gratitude and obligation) in Filipino society [53,54]. Although this study did not statistically analyze the relationship between family relationships and strengths use, descriptive findings such as high levels of family satisfaction and the prominence of family-related meaning underscore the cultural centrality of familial bonds in participants’ lives. This culturally salient pattern can be contextualized through broader psychological frameworks. For example, Relational-cultural theory emphasizes that growth-fostering relationships are crucial for resilience and well-being, particularly among marginalized populations [55]. In collectivist cultures such as those in East and Southeast Asia, family-oriented coping is commonly used and culturally meaningful in the face of adversity [56]. While speculative, these perspectives suggest that family support and character strengths may interact synergistically to foster well-being in high-adversity environments. By considering cultural contexts, strength-based interventions can become more meaningful in non-WEIRD cultural contexts. Moreover, this approach aligns with the third wave of positive psychology, which emphasizes the importance of incorporating cultural perspectives beyond WEIRD societies [57].

While this study provides valuable insights into character strengths use and psychological well-being among slum dwellers, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to draw causal conclusions, underscoring the need for longitudinal studies to examine how strengths use may influence well-being over time. Second, the exclusive use of self-report measures may introduce biases such as social desirability and recall errors; future research should consider incorporating behavioral assessments or informant reports to enhance validity.

Third, although this study highlights the significance of character strengths use, its focus specifically on character strengths rather than general strengths use marks a conceptual shift, potentially limiting comparability with studies employing the standard SUS. Additionally, variation in the specific strengths selected by participants may have introduced uncontrolled variability, as certain strengths, such as Hope and Gratitude, are more strongly associated with well-being. Reflecting on one’s signature strengths may also temporarily enhance self-esteem or positive affect, potentially inflating associations with flourishing. Future studies should explore methods that balance cultural and personal relevance with methodological consistency.

Moreover, beyond character strengths, other psychological and social factors likely contribute to well-being in slum communities. Future research should investigate mechanisms such as social support, spirituality, and meaning-making, which may interact with strengths use to foster resilience. Examining whether family support moderates the impact of character strengths on well-being could offer deeper insights, particularly in collectivist cultures like the Philippines, where familial bonds are central to coping with adversity.

Another limitation lies in the qualitative analysis of meaning in life, which was coded by a single researcher without inter-coder reliability checks. Although consistency was sought through repeated reviews, future research would benefit from involving multiple coders to enhance the reliability of thematic classifications.

Finally, although the 12 domain satisfaction data were not subjected to inferential analysis, they may provide valuable insights into subjective well-being in high-adversity contexts. Future studies could explore how satisfaction across material, relational, and identity domains interacts with strengths use and overall psychological well-being.

This study highlights the significant role of character strengths in promoting psychological well-being among an underrepresented population—slum dwellers in the Philippines. The findings suggest that despite economic hardship and high levels of psychological distress, individuals can experience psychological flourishing, particularly when they actively utilize their strengths. These results expand the application of positive psychology to non-WEIRD and high-adversity environments, demonstrating that psychological resources play a crucial role in resilience beyond economically privileged settings. Furthermore, this study underscores the need for strengths-based interventions tailored specifically for slum communities. Future research should further explore the mechanisms through which strengths use fosters well-being in adversity and design culturally responsive interventions that harness these psychological assets to enhance resilience and quality of life in slum communities.