Academic Evaluation Anxiety is a widespread phenomenon in school contexts, particularly during adolescence, and is defined as a set of physiological, emotional, and cognitive responses triggered by evaluative academic situations [1,2]. While some degree of anxiety can be adaptive, high Academic Evaluation Anxiety interferes with students’ learning, well-being, and academic performance [3].

Recent research in the Portuguese educational context highlights the increasing relevance of Academic Evaluation Anxiety as a public health concern in schools, with academic pressure, low emotional regulation, and limited psychological flexibility acting as amplifying factors [4,5]. In addition, lack of social support and poor self-management strategies have been associated with heightened anxiety in academic settings [6,7].

Academic Evaluation Anxiety has been consistently linked to reduced academic achievement, lower self-esteem, school avoidance, and increased psychological distress [8–10]. At a neurocognitive level, it impairs working memory, attention, and test performance, particularly when students experience perfectionistic thinking or fear of a negative evaluation [11].

Gender differences have been consistently documented in both national and international studies, with girls reporting higher levels of Academic Evaluation Anxiety than boys [12,13]. These differences may be explained by a combination of biological mechanisms—such as heightened hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity to stress [14]—and sociocultural factors, including internalised performance expectations, fear of failure, and greater societal acceptance of emotional expression in girls [15]. In Portugal, where educational attainment is often associated with social mobility and family honour, female students may experience additional pressure to achieve academically, further exacerbating anxiety symptoms [16].

Furthermore, adolescence represents a period of heightened vulnerability due to rapid neurobiological development, identity exploration, and increased exposure to evaluative and competitive academic contexts [17]. These processes may interact with gender norms, leading to distinct coping styles—such as greater reliance on relational validation among girls—that can influence the intensity and expression of Academic Evaluation Anxiety [1].

Understanding the psychosocial predictors of Academic Evaluation Anxiety is crucial for identifying vulnerable students and informing targeted interventions. Emerging approaches based on Positive Youth Development and mindfulness have shown promising outcomes in mitigating Academic Evaluation Anxiety and promoting coping strategies [18,19]. However, despite the growing literature, there remains a need for large-scale, population-based studies in Portugal that simultaneously examine individual, relational, and contextual predictors of this form of anxiety.

This study seeks to fill existing gaps in the Portuguese context by providing large-scale evidence on the prevalence, predictors, and gender differences in Academic Evaluation Anxiety, integrating individual, relational, and school-environmental factors.

Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for the variables used in the study, including the number of participants (N), means, standard deviations (SDs), and observed ranges. Overall, students reported a moderate mean level of Academic Evaluation Anxiety (Mean = 2.49, SD = 1.05), with higher average scores in socio-emotional skills such as cooperation (Mean = 2.91) and optimism (Mean = 2.70), and lower scores in bullying (Mean = 0.45). Well-being levels, as measured by the WHO-5 index, were moderate (Mean = 15.70), while stress, anxiety, and depression scores from the DASS-21 were generally low to moderate. These descriptive patterns provide an initial overview of potential protective and risk factors associated with Academic Evaluation Anxiety.

There are statistically significant differences between the genders in the level of Academic Evaluation Anxiety (F = 306.206, p < 0.001), with female students (Mean = 2.80, SD = 0.93) presenting a higher level of Academic Evaluation Anxiety compared to male students (2.16 ± 1.1) (see Table 3).

Considering the differences between the grades in relation to the average level of Academic Evaluation Anxiety, illustrated in Table 4, there are no statistically significant differences.

A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to identify the variables most strongly associated with Academic Evaluation Anxiety (Table 5 and Fig. 1). The adjusted model was statistically significant, F (26.2208) = 46.93, p < 0.001, explaining 34.8% of the variance in the dependent variable (R² = 0.348). All predictors in the model showed acceptable multicollinearity values, with VIF scores ranging from 1.02 to 1.78, well below the commonly accepted threshold of 5.

Among the predictors, resilience/resistance emerged as the strongest protective factor (β = −0.38, p < 0.001), indicating that students with higher resilience scores reported substantially lower levels of Academic Evaluation Anxiety. Creativity (β = −0.06, p = 0.010) and self-confidence (β = −0.07, p = 0.020) also acted as protective factors, albeit with smaller effect sizes.

In contrast, cooperation was the most prominent risk factor (β = 0.23, p < 0.001), followed by relationships with teachers (β = 0.08, p < 0.001) and bullying (β = 0.07, p < 0.001). Interestingly, school environment showed a small but significant positive association with anxiety (β = 0.05, p = 0.030), suggesting that even in generally supportive contexts, certain environmental dynamics may contribute to evaluative stress.

Gender differences remained significant in the multivariate model, with female students reporting higher anxiety scores than male students (β = 0.11, p < 0.001), even after controlling for other variables.

These findings highlight the complex interplay between individual competencies, interpersonal relationships, and school context in shaping students’ experience of Academic Evaluation Anxiety.

The findings of this study confirm that Academic Evaluation Anxiety is a significant concern among Portuguese students, particularly for female adolescents. The results support previous literature indicating gender differences in emotional response to academic pressure [12,13]. Girls report higher levels of Academic Evaluation Anxiety, potentially due to sociocultural norms around emotional expression, performance expectations, and fear of failure [7]. This finding provides direct support for Hypothesis 1, which predicted that girls would report significantly higher levels of Academic Evaluation Anxiety than boys.

Although descriptive analyses indicated that older students presented slightly higher mean levels of anxiety, the differences by school grade were not statistically significant. In contrast, gender emerged as the only significant demographic predictor in the multivariate model, with female students consistently reporting higher anxiety scores. This distinction highlights that age-related patterns observed at a descriptive level may not hold when controlling for other psychosocial variables.

Resilience emerged as the strongest protective factor. Students with higher resilience scores were significantly less likely to report elevated levels of Academic Evaluation Anxiety. This finding corroborates developmental frameworks that position resilience and emotional regulation as core competencies in adolescent adaptation [18,25]. Creativity also appeared as a protective factor, suggesting that students with greater creative flexibility may cope more adaptively with evaluative challenges [26,27]. Together with the inverse association of self-confidence, these results confirm Hypothesis 2, which anticipated that resilience, self-confidence, and creativity would be negatively associated with Academic Evaluation Anxiety.

Conversely, cooperation and teacher-student relationships, while generally considered positive, were positively associated with Academic Evaluation Anxiety. This paradox may reflect a context of performance-driven cooperation or external validation needs, where students feel compelled to meet others’ expectations. Similarly, teacher relationships might become sources of pressure when academic expectations are high [15].

Bullying and school environment also significantly predicted higher levels of Academic Evaluation Anxiety. These results reinforce the importance of relational safety and a supportive school climate in shaping students’ emotional experiences. As such, preventive strategies should integrate not only individual coping but also structural and relational components [6,7]. These findings are consistent with Hypothesis 3, which predicted that bullying, poorer school climate, and performance-contingent relationships with teachers would be positively associated with Academic Evaluation Anxiety.

Finally, confidence—a dimension of Positive Youth Development—was inversely related to anxiety. This supports the role of intrapersonal strengths in buffering stress and highlights the need to embed youth development principles into educational policies [19,28].

Unexpectedly, general anxiety symptoms (as measured by the DASS-21) were not significantly associated with Academic Evaluation Anxiety. This suggests that the anxiety reported by students is not indicative of a generalised internalising disorder, but rather reflects a specific, performance-related form of situational anxiety [2,3,21]. This distinction underscores the importance of differentiating between general anxiety and evaluation-specific anxiety in both assessment and intervention planning.

This study contributes to the growing body of research on adolescent mental health by highlighting the psychosocial dimensions of Academic Evaluation Anxiety in Portuguese schools. It identifies not only the emotional toll of academic pressure but also the personal and relational resources that buffer its impact.

From a scientific perspective, the study confirms international evidence that Academic Evaluation Anxiety is more prevalent among girls, and that resilience and confidence serve as protective factors—thereby reinforcing the developmental relevance of socio-emotional competencies [26,29]. These findings validate the application of Positive Youth Development frameworks and emotional regulation theory within the school context [5,18].

Furthermore, the study draws attention to less intuitive findings—such as the association of Academic Evaluation Anxiety with perceived cooperation and teacher relationships—highlighting the need to critically reflect on how support systems are structured. Support that is contingent upon performance may inadvertently increase anxiety, particularly in achievement-focused environments [15].

At the ecological level, the predictive role of bullying and a negative school climate underscores the necessity of creating emotionally safe school environments, where belonging, respect, and psychological security are cultivated alongside academic goals [6,7].

Theoretically, these findings expand our understanding of Academic Evaluation Anxiety as not merely an internal experience, but as an interaction between individual characteristics, relational dynamics, and the broader school ecosystem. This perspective can inform more holistic educational policies that address both learning outcomes and student well-being.

In practical terms, the results support the development of national educational guidelines that integrate mental health promotion into the core curriculum. Policy actions could include embedding socio-emotional learning (SEL) in all school years, reforming assessment methods to reduce excessive performance pressure, and mandating anti-bullying and school climate improvement programmes. These measures align with current Portuguese educational reforms aimed at fostering inclusion, reducing school dropout, and promoting student well-being as a foundation for academic success.

Importantly, current international literature advocates for a shift away from viewing academic achievement as the sole indicator of student success, toward a more integrative perspective that values multiple competencies, including socio-emotional, creative, and collaborative skills [29]. This broader framework reinforces the need to align educational reforms with a holistic vision of student development, ensuring that academic environments nurture both learning outcomes and overall well-being.

In conclusion, addressing Academic Evaluation Anxiety requires coordinated action between policymakers, educators, families, and communities to create learning environments where students can thrive academically and psychologically.