Optimism refers to generalized outcome expectancies, defined as the tendency to believe that good things will happen across life events [31,32,33]. It can be conceptualized from two complementary perspectives [31,34]. Trait optimism reflects a stable and generalized tendency to expect favorable outcomes across life domains [31], whereas state optimism represents a dynamic, context-dependent belief in positive outcomes that may fluctuate over time or across situations. Given that martial arts training involves goal striving, feedback, and mastery experiences that vary across contexts, state optimism provides a more sensitive indicator of the short-term psychological changes fostered through such practice. Previous research has identified associations between optimism and multiple psychological indicators, including mental health, well-being, stress, and depression [35,36,37]. Although empirical evidence is limited, one early study reported that participation in traditional martial arts was associated with greater optimistic attitudes, a finding that has been cited in later reviews [24,38,39].

Optimism functions positively in interpersonal relationships by facilitating bond formation and maintenance, enhancing relationship satisfaction and adjustment, and contributing to social support and the expansion of networks; thus, serving as an important psychological resource [40,41,42]. Psychological resources can play a crucial role in shaping school belonging. Previous research noted that positive personal attributes, including optimism, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and resilience, are significantly associated with school belonging [13], and these attributes collectively serve as important psychological resources [43,44,45]. Individuals with an optimistic disposition are more likely to experience higher levels of bonding and relational satisfaction with their peers, which, in turn, are linked to a stronger sense of school belonging.

Optimism is also related to well-being. Oriol and Miranda [46] found that optimism significantly affects both subjective and psychological well-being. In particular, adolescents with higher optimism tended to experience more positive and fewer negative emotions, suggesting possible links to emotion regulation and psychological adaptation. Thus, optimism functions as an important predictor of quality of life across different age groups and has been reported to enhance positive emotional experiences and mental health [47,48,49]. Duy and Yıldız [50] mentioned that optimism was indirectly associated with subjective well-being through self-esteem as a mediator, indicating optimistic individuals are more likely to form positive self-evaluations, enhancing their overall well-being.

Beyond well-being, optimism is related to academic achievement. El-Anzi [51] noted that students’ optimistic attitudes were linked to greater persistence and problem-solving abilities in personal situations, and a hopeful outlook toward the future may serve as a motivation for academic success. Furthermore, Tetzner and Becker [12] examined the relationships between optimism, self-esteem, and academic achievement and found that optimism serves as a significant predictor in academic contexts and that moderate levels of optimism appeared to be most beneficial for academic achievement. Previous studies have demonstrated that optimism is significantly associated with school belonging [13], well-being [46], and academic achievement [51]. Nevertheless, these relationships have rarely been explored within the context of traditional martial arts. To address this gap, this study examined whether the positive role of optimism observed in educational settings also emerges in this context and proposed the following hypotheses:

School belonging refers to the extent to which students feel psychologically connected to their school community, experience emotional bonds, and have a sense of security [13,52]. This sense of belonging is regarded as being closely related to relatedness, one of the basic psychological needs proposed in self-determination theory, and has been shown to be important for students’ emotional stability, self-efficacy, academic motivation, and social adjustment [13,53,54,55].

School belonging is also closely associated with well-being. Well-being is a key indicator of quality of life, which has become increasingly important in modern society [56,57]. In particular, childhood and adolescence are periods of rapid physical, psychological, and social changes, during which well-being serves as the foundation for healthy development and future life adaptation [58,59]. Tian et al. [60] and Arslan et al. [61] noted that the stronger a student’s sense of belonging at school, the higher their life satisfaction and levels of positive emotions, which ultimately leads to improvements in overall well-being. Both school belonging and student well-being have been found to be associated with traditional martial arts participation. Traditional martial arts emphasize etiquette, respect, and a culture of collective practice, thereby promoting students’ psychological bonding and social connectedness [21]. Such training methods foster relationships through interpersonal interactions and support community development. Moore et al. [24] reported that traditional martial arts training significantly enhanced well-being and alleviated internalized mental health problems (e.g., anxiety and depression), suggesting its potential as a sports-based psychological intervention. Building on previous studies indicating that traditional martial arts training may strengthen students’ sense of school belonging, this study examines the relationships between school belonging and well-being and proposes the following hypothesis:

One of the most important developmental tasks during the school years is academic achievement [62], which goes beyond grades, and has been recognized as having a decisive impact on future academic pathways and career choices [63]. School belonging has been identified as a critical predictor of academic achievement. Sakellariou [14] reported that school belonging is a major factor in enhancing learning attitudes and academic engagement and that intrinsic motivation and engagement are closely related to improved academic performance. Slaten et al. [11] also emphasized that school belonging (school engagement) and educational expectations are important predictors of students’ academic achievement [64].

Similarly, well-being has been found to be related to academic achievement. Previous research has demonstrated that well-being is closely associated with academic success [16]. For example, Cárdenas et al. [65] found that students’ subjective well-being significantly predicted subsequent academic achievement, with lower levels of depression and higher levels of positive emotions corresponding to better performance. Holzer et al. [15] indicated that optimism and perseverance, as subcomponents of well-being in the school context, were significantly related to academic achievement. Specifically, optimism helps students maintain positive expectations about the future during the learning process, whereas perseverance enables them to continue striving toward goals despite difficulties, thereby illustrating the association between well-being and academic success.

The benefits of traditional martial arts training may extend beyond the psychological effects to enhancing academic performance. Pinto-Escalona et al. [26] reported that a school-based intervention using karate, a form of traditional martial art, positively influenced students’ academic achievement, reduced behavioral problems, and improved physical fitness. Notably, children who participated in one year of karate classes showed significant improvements in average grades compared to the control group, providing empirical evidence that traditional martial arts experiences are related to academic benefits. Based on these findings, this study proposed the following hypotheses:

Relationship motivation theory, derived from self-determination theory, provides a framework for explaining the formation and strengthening of human motivation in social relationships [28]. The theory emphasizes the three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—while focusing on how these needs are satisfied in interpersonal interactions [28,54]. According to Deci and Ryan [28], fulfilling the need for relatedness enhances autonomy and well-being, promoting positive emotions and adaptive behaviors. In the school context, the satisfaction of relatedness is reflected in school belonging, whereby students experience emotional bonds with peers, teachers, and the broader school community [13]. School belonging has also been shown to influence well-being and academic achievement, functioning as a key mediator in these processes [66,67,68]. Optimism, a psychological resource closely associated with interpersonal functioning [40], may interact with school belonging to support students’ well-being. Accordingly, this study hypothesizes that school belonging mediates the relationship between optimism and well-being.

The dynamics of action theory, proposed by Atkinson and Birch [29], conceptualizes motivation as dynamic rather than fixed, shifting across activities over time. Although originally developed to explain short-term task switching in laboratory settings, the theory highlights that motivation continuously evolves as individuals engage in different activities, suggesting that motivation and emotions generated in one activity may influence subsequent behaviors over time [69]. Complementing this view, the spillover theory [30] posits that experiences and resources acquired in one life domain can transfer to other psychologically or functionally connected domains. Domains of life are interdependent, and emotions, motivation, and behavioral tendencies cultivated in one domain may shape attitudes and outcomes in another through shared psychological processes [30]. From this perspective, traditional martial arts training can be regarded as a real-world domain for examining motivational and emotional resources, and within the spillover framework, such resources may be conceptually linked to other domains [70]. In particular, optimism, school belonging, and well-being have been conceptually associated with the context of traditional martial arts, and these psychological resources may extend beyond the physical and social domains [21,24,26,38]. Such processes may be related to students’ academic achievement, reflecting potential positive spillover effects across life domains. Based on this theoretical background, the following hypotheses were proposed. Fig. 1 illustrates a research model.

This study targeted elementary school students enrolled in school-based traditional martial arts (i.e., taekkyeon) classes in Chungju, South Korea. Data were collected from four elementary schools that agreed to participate in this study. Data were gathered on-site in classrooms between August and November 2024 using self-report questionnaires. Students who did not return parental consent forms were excluded, and no additional exclusion criteria were applied. Prior to data collection, written informed consent was obtained from parents, and assent was obtained from all child participants. Students were informed of the study’s purpose, procedures, confidentiality safeguards, and voluntary participation. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Sungkyunkwan University approved all study procedures (reference no. SKKU-2024-08-018), and no ethical concerns arose during the process. A total of 331 students ultimately participated in the study. The sample comprised 172 boys (52%) and 159 girls (48%), with a mean age of 8.34 years (SD = 0.58). The average duration of taekkyeon training was 0.79 years (SD = 0.46).

First, we screened the data for violations of the assumptions. Cases with multivariate outliers were identified and excluded using the Mahalanobis distance [76]. Consequently, 27 multivariate outliers were excluded, leaving 304 valid responses for the final analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to evaluate the measurement model. Model fit was assessed using the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), with acceptable thresholds set at CFI and TLI values ≥ 0.90 and RMSEA ≤ 0.08 [77]. After confirming an adequate model fit, construct reliability and validity were examined. Reliability was evaluated through factor loadings and composite reliability (CR), with CR values ≥ 0.70 considered acceptable [76]. Convergent validity was assessed using the average variance extracted (AVE), with values ≥ 0.50 regarded as satisfactory [76,78]. Discriminant validity was assessed using the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT), with HTMT values < 0.85 indicating sufficient discriminant validity [79]. Subsequently, structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to test the hypothesized relationships. Standard errors and confidence intervals were estimated using 5000 bootstrap resamples [80]. All analyses were performed using SPSS 27.0 and AMOS 24.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

The results of the CFA indicated that the measurement model showed an acceptable fit: χ²(293) = 620.41, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06. Next, the internal consistency of the measurement models was assessed. The CR values ranged from 0.845 for school belonging to 0.941 for well-being, indicating satisfactory reliability (CR ≥ 0.70). The AVE was 0.522 for school belonging and 0.665 for well-being, both exceeding the recommended threshold (AVE ≥ 0.50) (Table 1). Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) and correlation coefficients among the latent variables were computed, and the results are presented (Table 2). Finally, discriminant validity was supported (HTMT < 0.85) (Table 3).

The results of the SEM indicated that the structural model showed an acceptable fit: χ²(293) = 620.41, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06. Hypothesis testing was evaluated based on path coefficients (β), standard errors (SE), z-statistics, and significance levels (p). First, optimism had a positive effect on school belonging (β = 0.592, SE = 0.071, z = 8.298, p < 0.001). Optimism positively influenced well-being (β = 0.580, SE = 0.061, z = 10.043, p < 0.001) and had a significant direct effect on academic achievement (β = 0.180, SE = 0.112, z = 2.038, p < 0.05). Thus, H1, H2, and H3 were supported. Next, school belonging showed a significant positive effect on well-being (β = 0.435, SE = 0.058, z = 7.987, p < 0.001), but no direct effect on academic achievement (β = 0.091, SE = 0.100, z = 1.157, p > 0.05). Therefore, H4 was supported, whereas H5 was rejected. Well-being positively affected academic achievement (β = 0.597, SE = 0.147, z = 4.837, p < 0.001). Hence, H6 was supported. Additionally, indirect effects were tested using bootstrapping. The results showed that the indirect effect of optimism on well-being through school belonging was significant, as the 95% confidence interval did not include zero. Finally, the sequential mediation effect of optimism on academic achievement through school belonging and well-being was significant as the 95% confidence interval did not include zero (Table 4). The standardized path coefficients of the final structural model are shown in Fig. 2.

Previous studies have examined the relationships between traditional martial arts training and students’ psychological variables [24] as well as academic achievement [26]. However, few studies have investigated the relationships among these variables. This study provided empirical evidence supporting the educational value of traditional martial arts training for students. In particular, the findings suggest that positive expectations for the future formed through martial arts experiences are related to higher levels of school belonging and well-being, which, in turn, are linked with better academic achievement. These findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the psychological and social implications of traditional martial arts and the processes through which these effects may occur in educational settings.

Most previous studies have emphasized academic activities and environmental factors as predictors of academic achievement [90,91]. In contrast, this study identified that traditional martial arts experiences may be related to academic achievement, thereby providing new implications for theoretical discussion. Furthermore, this study focused on relatedness among basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). The results revealed a pattern of associations in which optimism was related to well-being through the fulfillment of relatedness needs, and well-being was, in turn, associated with academic achievement. Importantly, this research extended the application of both relationship motivation theory [28], the dynamics of action theory [29], and the spillover theory [30], offering an integrated explanation of the relationships among the constructs and contributing to theoretical advancement in sports pedagogy and psychology.

This study also suggests that traditional martial arts practice may function as a meaningful pedagogical approach associated with both students’ well-being and academic achievement. Accordingly, schools should consider expanding the inclusion of traditional martial arts programs in physical education classes and extracurricular activities. In the long term, martial arts could be incorporated into the formal curriculum. Educators should design martial arts classes not merely as physical skill training, but as a platform that foster mutual respect, cooperation, and peer support. For instance, teachers may organize team-based tasks that encourage students to exchange feedback and build connectedness, which can, in turn, enhance their psychological security and motivation to learn [92]. Beyond these educational applications, the findings further indicate that the practice of traditional martial arts contributes to students’ mental health and overall quality of life, supporting the motivational transfer of positive resources to academic contexts. This study’s integrated theoretical framework provides a novel perspective that connects physical, emotional, and academic dimensions of student development, thereby clarifying the theoretical contribution of traditional martial arts research to the broader field of motivation and educational psychology.

Although this study provided new insights, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, as a cross-sectional study, causal relationships between the variables cannot be demonstrated. In addition, potentially influential background factors, such as socioeconomic status, parental education level, initial motivation, and previous athletic experience, were not controlled, and students’ experiences in other extracurricular activities were not considered. Second, the participants were limited to South Korean elementary school students practicing taekkyeon, and variations in the duration and intensity of martial arts training were not examined due to the lack of standardized measures across programs, which may affect the generalizability and magnitude of the observed effects. Finally, academic achievement was assessed through self-reported measures; future studies should incorporate objective indicators such as grades, standardized test scores, or attendance records. To address these limitations, future research should employ longitudinal designs, include more diverse samples, and consider different types of physical activities and cultural contexts to more accurately examine the effects of traditional martial arts training.