Ethical approval was obtained from the Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee of Inonu University (Approval Number: 2025-2615). All participants were informed about the aims and procedures of the study, and written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection. To locate potential participants, the study was introduced at equine-assisted therapy centers and affiliated rehabilitation facilities in Rijeka (Croatia) and Malatya (Türkiye), where local therapy staff supported access to families by distributing study information to eligible parents within the Erasmus+ project collaboration.

Eligibility criteria included [53]: (a) being a parent of a child aged 6–12 years diagnosed with ASD, (b) participation in simultaneous parent–child equine-assisted riding sessions, and (c) having recently begun participation in an equine-assisted therapy program, defined as within the past 1–6 months at the time of recruitment. Exclusion criteria were: (a) parents whose children participated in equine-assisted therapy without parental involvement, (b) families with long-term prior experience in equine-assisted therapy exceeding six months, (c) participation exclusively in non-equine or non-riding therapeutic programs, and (d) families who had not yet completed at least one month of program participation. All participating children had a prior clinical diagnosis of ASD based on existing medical or educational documentation provided by parents.

A total of 18 parents participated in the study (Table 1), including twelve mothers and six fathers, aged between 29 and 54 years (M = 40.72). Recruitment was evenly distributed across the two countries, with nine parents from Croatia and nine from Türkiye. The participating children ranged in age from 7 to 12 years, with the majority falling between 8 and 11 years. Participation duration varied from 1 to 6 months (with shorter durations reflecting recently enrolled participants), with most families engaging in the intervention for approximately 3–4 months. Session frequency ranged from once to twice weekly, reflecting both family availability and program structure. Four children were reported to have co-occurring conditions, including attention difficulties, coordination difficulties, and anxiety symptoms, based on information provided by parents from existing clinical or educational records. No additional diagnostic assessments were conducted as part of the study.

Sessions were conducted with children aged 7–12 years at beginner level over intervention periods ranging from 1 to 6 months and typically lasted 30–45 min. Each session included a brief orientation and warm-up, followed by mounted riding activities in which the child rode the horse while the parent was simultaneously present alongside the horse, maintaining close proximity or light physical contact to support comfort and confidence. Riding tasks focused on basic balance, posture, rhythm, and simple directional cues appropriate to the child’s developmental level, and sessions concluded with dismounting and calming interaction with the horse. In this context, “simultaneous parent–child equine-assisted riding” referred to the concurrent involvement of parent and child during riding activities, emphasizing shared presence, safety, and emotional support rather than sequential participation.

Data were collected through semi-structured, in-depth interviews [54]. Interviews were conducted by Author Yalin Aygun in Türkiye (Turkish language) and Author Draščić Šarinić in Croatia (Croatian language). Both interviewers were members of the Erasmus+ research collaboration and had prior experience with qualitative interviewing. Interviews were carried out face-to-face in participants’ native languages to ensure comfort and depth of expression. Parents were asked to describe the benefits they observed in their children during equine-assisted riding, as well as the moments in which they perceived shared positive experiences indicative of positivity resonance in themselves and their children. The interviews focused on three key areas aligned with the aims of the study. First, parents were asked to describe their history of involvement with equine-assisted therapy (for example, how they began participating, how long they had been attending sessions, and what motivated their continued engagement). Second, parents were invited to discuss the benefits they observed in their autistic children during equine-assisted riding, including emotional and social changes they believed the sessions supported. Third, the interviews explored parents’ experiences of moments that felt shared or mutually uplifting, with a particular emphasis on instances in which they perceived emotional connection, mutual care, or synchrony that might reflect positivity resonance for themselves and their children. No need for debriefing or further elaboration arose as a result of the interview or the process of recalling experiences. The interviews lasted between 20 and 45 min, with an average duration of approximately 32 min, and produced a total of 100 typed pages of verbatim transcription (Times New Roman, 12-point font, A4 page size, 1.5-line spacing).

After initial translations by Draščić Šarinić and Yalin Aygun, each transcript was independently reviewed by a second bilingual team member to ensure meaning equivalence. Any discrepancies were resolved through team discussions, and crucially, these language checks and meaning controls were conducted during Erasmus+ Sports transnational project meetings with face-to-face coordination among multiple participants. Culturally specific expressions and key idioms were collaboratively discussed in these face-to-face coordination and monitoring stages, ensuring cultural accuracy. Furthermore, the analytic team revisited original-language excerpts during theme refinement to ensure the English quotations reflected relational and affective nuances. Thus, translation was treated as an interpretive step, safeguarded at multiple stages within the Erasmus+ sport framework. This process involved overlapping responsibilities between translation and analysis, with decisions reached collaboratively through ongoing team dialogue.

A reflexive thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke [55] was conducted following the six-phase analytic process [56]. Analysis commenced with repeated, immersive readings of the interview transcripts to achieve deep familiarization with the breadth and nuance of parents’ accounts. During this phase, the analyst recorded reflexive notes capturing initial analytic impressions, points of curiosity, and emerging questions, recognizing that interpretation begins at the point of engagement with the data rather than after formal coding.

Initial coding was then undertaken through a flexible, line-by-line process that attended closely to participants’ language and meaning-making. Coding focused on parents’ descriptions of perceived benefits of equine-assisted riding for their autistic children, alongside accounts of shared moments during simultaneous riding sessions [57,58]. This phase was primarily inductive (bottom-up, e.g., Frith and Gleeson [59]), particularly in relation to social-emotional and developmental changes, with codes generated directly from the data rather than from a pre-established framework. At the same time, the analysis was theoretically sensitized (top-down) [60] by the study’s conceptual grounding in positivity resonance, which guided analytic attention toward both the experiential components of shared positive affect and the behavioral components of relational synchrony, such as mutual gaze, embodied coordination, and moments of attuned interaction. As coding progressed, coded segments were collated and compared across the dataset to identify preliminary patterns of shared meaning. These early clusters were treated as provisional and subject to ongoing scrutiny. Through an iterative and recursive analytic process, potential themes were actively reviewed, refined, merged, or separated to ensure internal coherence and clear distinction between themes. For example, early codes relating to “emotional calm”, “enjoyment”, and “togetherness” were initially treated as discrete but were later integrated when sustained comparison demonstrated that they functioned as interrelated facets of shared relational experience in parents’ narratives.

The interpretive process was explicitly reflexive. Rather than attempting to bracket this positioning, reflexivity was operationalized through analytic memo-writing, in which assumptions, expectations, and alternative readings were documented and revisited throughout analysis. Coding and initial theme development were led by Author Yalin Aygun, with ongoing reflexive dialogue and analytic input from Authors Sakir Tufekci, Fatma Hilal Yagin, and Cemil Colak. These discussions served to challenge emerging interpretations, question thematic boundaries, and refine conceptual coherence. Analytic rigor was thus supported through transparency and reflexive interrogation rather than through inter-rater reliability, consistent with the principles of reflexive thematic analysis.

Throughout theme refinement, attention was paid to variation and contradiction within the dataset. Accounts that diverged from dominant patterns, such as ambivalence about benefits or uneven experiences of connection, were retained and analytically engaged. These instances were used to test and sharpen thematic boundaries, ensuring that themes represented patterned meaning across diversity rather than idealized uniformity. As analysis progressed, themes were further defined and named with careful attention to their central organizing concepts and their conceptual alignment with the study’s aims. The entire dataset was reread by Yalin Aygun and Sakir Tufekci to ensure that themes adequately captured the contours of parents’ accounts and that no salient meanings had been overlooked. Practical tools, including handwritten notes, visual mapping, and digital organization via Microsoft Word and Excel, functioned as supports for reflexive engagement rather than as mechanisms that structured or constrained analytic decisions.

In the final phase, themes were written into a coherent analytic narrative supported by vivid and representative data extracts. The analytic write-up aimed not merely to summarize parents’ experiences but to interpret the meaning-making processes through which emotional and social benefits and moments of relational connection were understood, situating these accounts within a broader conceptual framework of shared affect and relational synchrony during equine-assisted riding.

Social interaction and communication emerged throughout the interviews as parents reflected on the social and interpersonal changes they observed in their autistic children after participating in horse-based riding therapy. Horse-based activities appeared to support a range of socially oriented behaviors, including greater responsiveness, more purposeful eye contact, and a clearer interest in engaging with others. When asked about communication, Josip (HR, 32) voiced, “Before riding, she rarely reacted when someone spoke to her. Now we see small but steady changes: turning toward us, answering briefly, or showing she has heard what was said.” Hatice (TR, 49) similarly explained, “Once she came home wanting to share something, even if it’s just a few words or gestures about what they did with the horse.” Such reflections suggested that riding fostered more intentional self-expression and a greater readiness to communicate. Shifts were also noted in how children engaged with their immediate social environment. Marco (HR, 48) observed, “She has begun showing interest in being near other children at the center, even watching what they are doing or standing closer during activities”, while Merve (TR, 45) remarked, “He still avoids starting conversations, but now they look at others in a more focused and meaningful way.” Subtle changes such as reduced hesitation, more sustained eye contact, and a greater tendency to seek proximity were interpreted as meaningful indicators of emerging social awareness.

Parents’ accounts further illustrated this emerging social awareness. Ivan (HR, 40) explained, “Our child [she], who once struggled to interact with others, is now more willing to be near people, using gestures, smiling, or brief looks to show interest.” Zeynep (TR, 38) observed increased relational openness at home, stating, “He now approaches us more often, either to show something or just to be close.” Ahmet (TR, 33) also described a rise in everyday cooperation: “He now waits his turn and listen to others in a way he never did before.” These narratives suggested that parents perceived some of these social shifts as carrying over into everyday relational contexts.

A particularly rich account captured the depth of this interpersonal engagement:

Improvements in responsiveness to social cues were also described within the interviews, and several accounts noted that children had begun to follow simple instructions more reliably. Marija (HR, 45) explained, “He responds faster to ‘stop’, ‘go’, or ‘turn’, and looks at me to check if he is doing it right.” Further descriptions highlighted cooperation in group contexts, with Mehmet (TR, 54) noting that “During group riding activities, she waits, listens, and works together better than before.” The voices highlighted emerging capacities for joint attention, reciprocal engagement, and collaborative behavior, all of which constitute foundational components of interpersonal functioning.

Emotional regulation emerged throughout the interviews as parents reflected on the changes they observed in their autistic children after participating in horse-based riding therapy. The therapeutic environment, characterized by the horses’ rhythmic, wave-like movement and a calming sensory atmosphere, had appeared to lessen frustration. When describing emotional outbursts, Fatma (TR, 50) reflected, “My daughter, who used to react intensely when she didn’t get what she wanted, has now moved away from prolonged crying episodes”, suggesting that reactions previously marked by intensity had begun to resolve into shorter and more manageable responses. Ivana (HR, 43) similarly emphasized the calming effect of the sessions, noting that “Impulsivity decreases and emotional regulation improves”, which indicated that riding had helped stabilize affective states that had once been difficult to manage.

Reductions in anxiety, both within and beyond the therapy setting, were frequently described. As Hatice (HR, 49) explained, “It helps reduce anxiety during and after sessions and provides a sense of security”, highlighting how the embodied, predictable rhythm of the horse had contributed to a sense of emotional safety that extended beyond the immediate context. She also described a comparable pattern: “Therapy helps the child calm down and maintain emotional balance in stressful situations”, reinforcing the view that equine-assisted activities had nurtured coping capacities that autistic children could apply in their daily routines.

One parent provided a particularly detailed account that illustrated how these emotional changes unfolded in everyday life:

Parents also described emotional expression as becoming more apparent for several children. Ayse (TR, 35) observed, “He uses words more frequently to express emotions”, pointing to a growing capacity to articulate internal states rather than relying solely on behavioral displays. Ana (HR, 34) echoed this positive change, explaining that “She became more open in showing emotions, using gestures such as smiling or waving her arms to express joy or excitement, in the same effortless way one might respond to a best friend who does not need words to be understood”, which the parent interpreted as greater ease in both verbal and nonverbal emotional expression. Emine (TR, 41) described the emergence of more natural affective signaling, stating, “Emotional responses became more natural and authentic, such as smiling more frequently during activities”, indicating that her child had begun to exhibit more spontaneous emotional reciprocity.

The experiential aspect of positivity resonance was reflected in parents’ accounts describing how co-experienced emotional moments shaped riding encounters between parent and child. The child’s presence on the horse was often described as creating an atmosphere of warmth, ease, and shared emotional presence that gave the activity a distinctive relational quality. Riding could be understood as a meaningful family experience, a protected period of uninterrupted time together, or a context that supported a deeper sense of closeness. Subtle expressions of positive emotion from the child, such as a brief smile, soft laughter, or a gentle turn of the head, were articulated as evoking corresponding affective responses and inviting fuller participation in the moment. Reports also suggested that these moments sometimes left a lingering emotional trace that occasionally surfaced later in everyday life, functioning almost like a positive flashback in which the warmth and connection experienced during riding briefly reappeared and shaped how ordinary interactions were felt and remembered. Such co-experienced affect did not seem to arise in other therapeutic settings, indicating that the riding environment offered a uniquely supportive and emotionally safe context in which relational closeness could unfold.

Zeynep (TR, 38) described how moments of shared positive emotion unfolded during the ride:

Shared positive affect perceived as a central experiential element of the riding sessions, with parents describing a sense of warmth, enjoyment, and emotional closeness that felt both rare and meaningful in their everyday lives. Emine (TR, 41) explained that she valued the experience simply because “being with him there” carried an emotional quality that she could not easily define. Marco (HR, 48) described moments when his daughter laughed and he “laughed too without thinking”, which made the experience feel natural and infused with a shared sense of joy. Ivana (HR, 43) recalled instances when her daughter turned toward her with quiet excitement, creating a feeling that “the moment belonged to both of us”. For Fatma (TR, 50), the activity held significance primarily because it strengthened their relationship: “Being with my child is my motivation. I do not have a passion for riding.” She elaborated that preparing together, walking to the arena, and talking afterward made the experience “fun” and contributed to a growing sense of closeness. She described these episodes as “all about connection and shared joy”, highlighting how co-experienced positive emotion shaped the meaning parents attributed to the sessions and their sense of relational closeness.

Riding was also interpreted as an activity that could support family cohesion in contexts shaped by autism. Mehmet (TR, 54) articulated this perspective:

Participation was also shaped by how the riding sessions created brief experiences of warmth and emotional connection. Ahmet (TR, 33) explained this dynamic:

Positive emotion was often described in terms of co-experienced affect that unfolded only within the shared presence of parent and child. Martina (HR, 52) articulated this connection by noting that “when he is there and I see a lightness in the expression, something opens in me too. If I were alone, none of this would happen. But when we are together, something gets odd; we feel it together.” Emotional closeness also contributed to a sense of safety surrounding the activity. Ahmet (TR, 33) explained that “I wouldn’t feel comfortable if he were doing this alone. It feels meaningful when we are there together”, while Petra (HR, 36) emphasized the importance of accompaniment by stating, “I am a big believer that you should never experience this alone because should something happen emotionally or physically, it is always best to have someone with you. So always my son and I try to be together.” These descriptions illustrate how shared positive affect was intertwined with feelings of security, mutual presence, and emotional resonance that were central to how the experience was lived and understood.

Parents frequently reflected shared positive affect as a salient feature shaping how they understood and sustained their engagement with equine-assisted riding. For many, the opportunity to spend emotionally meaningful time with their child was describe as the primary motivation for continued participation. According to parents, as involvement deepened, the social environment surrounding the sessions gradually expanded. Relationships with instructors, volunteers, and other families developed into a supportive network that fostered confidence and a growing sense of ease within the setting. Families who had participated for longer periods often took on informal mentoring roles by welcoming newcomers and helping them feel comfortable, which contributed to a broader culture of collective engagement. Participation also retained a distinctly relational character. Most parents preferred to attend alongside their child, and many encouraged siblings or relatives to join, reinforcing the idea that riding was more than a therapeutic activity. Rather, it functioned as a relational space in which shared presence, emotional closeness, and family cohesion were enacted and strengthened over time.

Parents described moments during equine-assisted riding in which they and their autistic children appeared to fall into a subtle, shared rhythm, experienced as a form of caring nonverbal synchrony. These instances were characterized not by overt or deliberate coordination, but by naturally emerging gestures and bodily adjustments that signaled mutual attentiveness and a softening of emotional distance. Parents interpreted these fleeting patterns of synchrony as indicators that their child felt safe, receptive, and momentarily more at ease within the interaction. Parents experienced such attunement as more than physical alignment; it was framed as a relational space in which connection, calm, and responsiveness could unfold with less effort than in everyday settings. These moments seemed allow parents to perceive small but meaningful shifts in their child’s emotional steadiness, contributing to a sense that the activity facilitated a more grounded and reciprocal parent–child dynamic over time.

Merve (TR, 45) vividly described a moment of unexpected attunement during the ride:

This account was interpreted as illustrating how spontaneous, caring alignment in posture and gesture can emerge naturally within the riding context, which parents understood as an embodied form of nonverbal synchrony grounded in shared attention rather than deliberate coordination. Ivan (HR, 40) described a comparable experience:

Parents also reported moments of interpersonal attunement in the subtle ways they and their oriented toward one another during the ride. Ana (HR, 34) recounted one such moment:

Subtle interpersonal shifts (e.g., shared gaze, brief smiles, or slight adjustments in posture) were described by parents as quiet indicators of engagement and a sense of being emotionally available to one another. Some parents described these moments as emerging almost beneath conscious awareness. Zeynep (TR, 38) reflected: “I realized that when the horse moved, our bodies moved together, and somehow my movements matched my child’s… It felt like we were part of the same rhythm. I think he sensed that I was with him, really with him…”

Coordinated bodily movement shaped by the horse’s gait reported by parents as unique opportunities for them and their children to experience a felt sense of togetherness, and caring nonverbal synchrony became a distinctive feature of the therapeutic encounter. Some aspects of this synchrony were described directly, such as shared smiles, brief exchanges of gaze, or simultaneous shifts in posture. Other aspects emerged indirectly when parents spoke of “being in the same moment”, “feeling connected”, or “moving together”. Across the interviews, these experiences reflected mutual attention, responsiveness, and goodwill, which are central to interpersonal attunement. Within equine-assisted riding, this form of synchrony functioned as a nonverbal channel of communication that complemented emotional and relational gains. Parents described it as a rare opportunity to experience embodied connection with their autistic child.