Table 2 presents the basic information of the potential moderating variables extracted from the included studies. Including the specific types of moderator variables, as well as the number of independent samples and effect sizes.

The kappa coefficient was 0.937 after the first author completed the coding and the remaining authors conducted a review. This value indicates a high degree of consistency [61].

A total of 21 original studies involving 22 independent samples were included in the meta-analysis (see Table 1 and Table 2). The characteristics of the studies and their frequency distribution are shown in Table 2.

A significant Q-test value was observed (Q = 2555.181, p < 0.001), and the total I² value (96.241%) indicated a high level of heterogeneity (see Table 3). Consequently, moderator analyses were conducted to explore potential sources of variability among the included studies.

After applying the trim-and-fill method, the adjusted overall effect was r = 0.106 (95% CI [0.062, 0.151]). The results showed that, after the addition of 36 effect sizes, the adjusted effect size was smaller than the previously pooled overall effect size (r = 0.293, 95% CI [0.271, 0.365]), suggesting that the overall effect may have been somewhat overestimated.

Visual inspection of the funnel plot indicated that the distribution of effect sizes was approximately symmetric (see Fig. 2). However, Egger’s regression test yielded an intercept of 5.5994 (SE = 1.2758, t = 4.390, p < 0.001), suggesting potential asymmetry in the funnel plot.

In addition, Nfs = 97,681 was substantially larger than the criterion value (5K + 10 = 120), indicating that the overall findings are less likely to be fully explained by missing studies alone. Taken together, these results suggest the presence of publication bias or small-study effects, and therefore the overall findings should be interpreted with caution.

A meta-regression was performed, with the quality score entered as the predictor and effect size as the outcome variable. The results indicated F_(1,101) = 3.084; Intercept = −0.337; SE = 0.365; p = 0.358; β = 0.038; SE = 0.022; t = 1.756; p = 0.082. Overall, the results meant that literature quality was not significantly associated with effect sizes.

The correlation between CER and PSMU was r = 0.293 ([0.217, 0.365]), t = 7.387, p < 0.001 (see Table 3). According to Ellis’s criteria [68], the observed relationship between CER and PSMU fell within the category of a moderate positive correlation.

To examine the robustness of the main effect, a sensitivity analysis was conducted. when four studies using the overall CERQ scale were included, The results showed that: r = 0.051 ([−0.092, 0.191]), t = 0.709, p < 0.481. Overall effect size was non-significant. This pattern may reflect the uneven distribution of CER strategies across the included studies, with certain strategies being more extensively represented than others. Overall, the sensitivity analysis suggests that the main effect is influenced to some extent by the composition of CERQ dimensions, but becomes more stable when a broader set of studies is included.

Regarding the first research question, the present study found a moderate positive correlation between students’ CER and PSMU (r = 0.293). This finding is consistent with previous theoretical models. According to the I-PACE model, difficulties in managing negative affect are associated with impaired cognitive control and a greater tendency toward compulsive digital behaviors [23]. Similarly, the Risk Behavior Prediction Model [28,29] and the Self-Regulatory Depletion Model [69] suggest that strong negative emotions combined with insufficient regulation skills are associated with heightened impulsive tendencies, which may be associated with excessive social media use as an easily accessible—yet potentially ineffective—coping strategy. The Self-Defense Mechanism Model [20] and Self-Determination Theory [24] further suggest that maladaptive CER strategies (e.g., rumination, self-blame, avoidance) are associated with lower levels of psychological need satisfaction and a greater tendency to rely on social media as a form of emotional escape. Collectively, these frameworks converge on the idea that poorer CER is associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in PSMU, particularly among students with still-developing self-regulatory systems.

Beyond this pattern, several other models describe a potential reciprocal association in which emotional distress and PSMU are associated over time. Compensatory Internet Use Theory [31] and the Social–Emotional Model [70] suggest that individuals may turn to online environments when experiencing negative emotions, and such patterns may be associated with greater psychological strain over time. Relatedly, the Pathological Use Model [26,71] and Socio-Psychological–Physiological [34,72,73] perspectives indicate that although social networking may provide temporary relief, prolonged overuse is associated with poorer offline relationships, lower life satisfaction, and higher levels of anxiety or depressive symptoms. These patterns may, in turn, be associated with reduced CER capacity, forming a mutually reinforcing association between emotional dysregulation and problematic social media behaviors. The present study’s results align with this perspective, showing that individuals with poorer CER tend to report higher levels of PSMU.

The results of the sensitivity analysis provide further context for interpreting this overall pattern. Specifically, when studies using the overall CERQ scale were included, the association between CER and PSMU became non-significant. This finding suggests that the relationship between CER and PSMU may not be uniform across all CER strategies [49]. One possible explanation is that the existing literature is characterized by an uneven representation of different CER strategies, with rumination-related measures being disproportionately represented across studies. As a result, the overall association may be more strongly influenced by specific regulatory processes, rather than reflecting all CER dimensions equally. Therefore, these findings highlight the importance of considering strategy-specific differences when examining the relationship between CER and PSMU, rather than treating CER as a unitary construct. Accordingly, the overall effect size should be interpreted with caution, as it may not fully capture the associations across all CER strategies.

With respect to the second research question, this study found that CER type significantly moderated the relationship between CER and PSMU. ACER (r = 0.097) and MCER (r = 0.318) were significantly and positively associated with PSMU. Specifically, Acceptance (r = 0.359), Putting into perspective (r = 0.251), Self-blame (r = 0.400), Rumination (r = 0.319), Catastrophizing (r = 0.425), and Blaming others (r = 0.422) were positively associated with PSMU. Notably, acceptance, although typically classified as an adaptive CER strategy, was positively associated with PSMU (r = 0.359), with an effect size substantially larger than that of adaptive CER overall (ACER; r = 0.097). This finding is noteworthy and appears counterintuitive. One possible explanation lies in the context-dependent nature of acceptance [74]. In digital environments, particularly among adolescents, acceptance may reflect a more passive coping tendency (e.g., tolerating distress without active behavioral adjustment), which may be associated with greater reliance on social media as a means of emotional relief [75]. Importantly, this pattern suggests that acceptance may function differently from other adaptive CER strategies. Rather than reflecting effective emotional processing, acceptance in certain contexts may be more closely aligned with disengagement or passive coping, which may help account for its relatively stronger association with PSMU compared to other adaptive strategies. The r-values of Positive refocusing, Refocusing on planning, Positive reappraisal, and Mixed were not significantly associated with PSMU.

The present three-level meta-analysis showed that CER type significantly moderated the association between CER and PSMU. Subgroup estimates indicated that the magnitude of the CER–PSMU association varied across regulation strategies, with a significant positive association observed for maladaptive CER overall (MCER; r = 0.318) and a smaller but significant association for adaptive CER overall (ACER; r = 0.097). At the strategy level, several maladaptive strategies (e.g., self-blame, rumination, catastrophizing, and blaming others) showed relatively stronger positive correlations with PSMU, whereas several adaptive strategies (positive refocusing, refocusing on planning, and positive reappraisal) and the mixed category were not significantly related to PSMU. These findings indicate that CER type functions as a significant moderator of the association between CER and PSMU and helps explain part of the heterogeneity observed across studies. However, it should be noted that the observed pattern may be influenced by the disproportionate representation of rumination-related measures, and therefore may not equally reflect all CER dimensions.

To further interpret these patterns, from a functional perspective, maladaptive CER strategies and PSMU may share a common regulatory function. Maladaptive strategies such as self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing are characterized by dysfunctional cognitive patterns that are associated with heightened negative emotional experiences and difficulties in emotional resolution [16,76]. PSMU, in turn, has been widely conceptualized as a compensatory behavioral response to stress and emotional distress [31]. When adolescents rely on maladaptive cognitive regulation strategies, they may be more likely to report higher levels of social media use as an avoidant or emotion-relief-oriented coping pattern, which may help explain the stronger associations observed for maladaptive CER strategies.

A complementary explanation can be derived from a risk-oriented perspective. According to the Risk Behavior Prediction Model, maladaptive behaviors tend to be observed under conditions of intense emotional arousal combined with insufficient regulatory resources [28,29]. Maladaptive CER strategies are associated with higher levels of emotional reactivity, impulsivity, and psychological distress, thereby being linked to greater vulnerability to problematic digital behaviors. In contrast, adaptive CER strategies may be better understood as protective resources whose associations with PSMU may be context-dependent and less readily observable in general adolescent samples. As a result, maladaptive strategies are more likely to show robust and consistent associations with PSMU in meta-analytic analyses.

Finally, the observed pattern can be understood from a mechanistic or hierarchical perspective. Maladaptive CER strategies are conceptually closer to proximal self-regulatory difficulties, such as impaired inhibitory control and impulsive coping tendencies, which have been linked to PSMU [77,78]. These strategies are associated with heightened negative affect and reduced self-control, which may in turn be associated with greater engagement with rewarding digital behaviors. In contrast, adaptive strategies such as positive reappraisal or refocusing on planning may operate through more indirect pathways—such as improved academic coping or reduced stress accumulation—rather than showing strong direct associations with PSMU [79].

Taken together, these findings indicate that maladaptive CER strategies play a more central role in the association between CER and PSMU than adaptive strategies. The significant moderating effect of CER types underscores the importance of distinguishing between different regulatory strategies when examining PSMU and suggests that interventions targeting maladaptive CER may be particularly relevant for reducing PSMU among adolescents.

With respect to the second research question, the moderating effects of other variables showed mixed results and should be interpreted with caution.

The present meta-analysis showed that the moderating effect of grade was not significant and should therefore be interpreted with caution. Some subgroup estimates (e.g., middle and high school groups) were based on only one effect size (k = 1), and therefore do not allow for meaningful statistical comparison across groups. The distribution of samples across grade levels was highly uneven, with limited representation of certain subgroups. Under such conditions, subgroup estimates may be less stable, and potential differences across grade groups may be difficult to detect [62,80]. Therefore, the non-significant finding should not be interpreted as evidence of the absence of grade differences, but rather as a reflection of limited statistical power.

The present meta-analysis showed that the moderating effect of sampling method on the relationship was not significant. Among the 22 independent samples, most employed convenience sampling, whereas only a small number adopted random sampling. This imbalance in sampling approaches may have constrained variability between sampling categories and reduced the comparability of sampling groups, making it more difficult to identify systematic differences across sampling methods [62].

The present meta-analysis showed that the moderating effect of standardization of PSMU on the relationship was not significant. One possible explanation relates to the distribution of measurement approaches across the included studies. Among the 22 independent samples, the majority employed standardized scales, whereas only a small number relied on self-report measures or self-designed instruments. This pattern may have limited variability across measurement categories and reduced the sensitivity of comparisons across different types of measures [80].

The present meta-analysis further examined whether differences in the measurement of PSMU would influence the observed association with CER. The results indicated that the moderating effect of measurement of PSMU was not statistically significant, suggesting that the association between CER and PSMU is relatively stable across different measurement approaches. In the current study, PSMU measures were categorized into three types based on their primary conceptual focus: problematic or addictive use, usage behavior, and psychological factors. Although these categories reflect different operationalizations, they share common underlying dimensions, such as excessive engagement, loss of control, and negative emotional or social consequences. This conceptual overlap may contribute to the convergence of effect sizes across measurement types [81]. Additionally, the uneven distribution of measurement types across studies may have limited the statistical power to detect more nuanced differences.

The present meta-analysis further showed that the measurement of CER significantly moderated the association between CER and PSMU. Specifically, studies using the CERQ yielded a non-significant association, whereas rumination-related measures showed a significantly stronger effect. One possible explanation is that these two types of measures differ in their conceptual scope. The CERQ assesses multiple CER strategies within a multidimensional framework, whereas rumination-related measures focus more narrowly on a specific maladaptive regulatory process that has been more consistently linked to psychological maladjustment. Previous research has similarly suggested that different emotion regulation strategies may show varying degrees of association with maladaptive outcomes, rather than reflecting a uniform effect across all strategies [49]. Therefore, the present finding suggests that the association between CER and PSMU may be better understood from a multidimensional rather than a unitary perspective.

The present meta-analysis found that region did not significantly moderate the association between CER and PSMU. Although cultural and regional contexts have been theorized to be associated with differences in self-regulation and emotional processing (e.g., He et al.) [82], such patterns were not observed in the current synthesis. One possible explanation is that region represents a relatively broad contextual indicator that may not adequately capture more proximal sociocultural mechanisms relevant to CER and PSMU. In addition, the distribution of studies across continents was highly uneven, with a large proportion of samples drawn from Asia (predominantly China) and relatively limited representation from North America and Europe, which may have limited cross-regional comparability.

The present meta-analysis found that publication type significantly moderated the association between CER and PSMU, indicating that effect sizes varied across publication types. As noted by Card [61], one approach to assessing potential publication bias is to compare effect sizes across publication types. The moderation effect of publication type in the present study was statistically significant, suggesting that the magnitude of the reported associations differed systematically across journals, theses, and other dissemination formats. When considered alongside the trim-and-fill results, these findings together suggest that publication-related factors may have substantially influenced the observed overall effect. The trim-and-fill analysis indicates that smaller or non-significant effects may be underrepresented in the literature, while the larger effect sizes observed in dissertations and conference papers point to systematic differences across publication types. Taken together, these results suggest that the pooled effect size may have been overestimated and should not be interpreted as relatively robust. Furthermore, this finding may also reflect underlying differences in methodological rigor and reporting consistency across publication types. Studies published in peer-reviewed journals are typically subject to more stringent evaluation processes, whereas other formats may show greater variability in research quality. This highlights the importance of carefully considering publication sources in future meta-analytic and primary research. Accordingly, the overall association should be interpreted with caution, as it may be influenced by multiple sources of bias.

In terms of theoretical implications, the present study offers several important contributions to the literature on CER and PSMU.

First, this study represents one of the first three-level meta-analyses to quantitatively synthesize the association between CER and PSMU over the past decades. By integrating evidence from multiple independent samples and accounting for both within- and between-study variance, the present findings provide more stable and integrative estimates than individual studies, contributing to a clearer understanding of previously inconsistent empirical results. Importantly, the present study also reveals a notable imbalance in the existing literature, with rumination receiving relatively greater empirical attention compared to other CER strategies. This pattern suggests that current evidence on CER and PSMU may be disproportionately informed by a limited subset of regulatory processes. Rather than treating CER as a unitary construct, the present findings highlight the importance of adopting a multidimensional perspective and distinguishing between specific regulatory strategies when examining their associations with PSMU. In this sense, the present meta-analysis contributes not only by synthesizing existing evidence, but also by clarifying the structural characteristics of the literature and identifying directions for future research.

Second, the findings highlight that CER should not be treated as a single, uniform construct when examining its relationship with PSMU. Although existing theoretical models generally emphasize emotion regulation difficulties as a risk factor for problematic media use, the present meta-analysis demonstrates substantial variability across CER types. Specifically, different regulation strategies show markedly different associations with PSMU, indicating that the heterogeneity observed in prior research may be partly attributable to differences in the specific CER strategies assessed. This strategy-level differentiation refines existing theoretical frameworks by emphasizing the functional heterogeneity of CER processes.

Third, the strategy-specific results provide further theoretical insight by showing that not all strategies traditionally classified as adaptive or maladaptive function equivalently in the context of social media use. The robust associations observed for several maladaptive strategies, as well as the significant association for acceptance, suggest that the effectiveness and consequences of CER strategies may be context-dependent. These findings underscore the need for more fine-grained theoretical models that move beyond broad categorical distinctions and consider the distinct psychological roles of individual CER strategies in shaping problematic digital behaviors.

In terms of practical implications, this study’s findings also have important implications for the prevention and intervention of PSMU among adolescents.

First, the results suggest that practical efforts aimed at reducing PSMU should avoid adopting an undifferentiated approach to emotion regulation. Rather than focusing solely on enhancing general emotion regulation skills, intervention programs may be more effective if they prioritize the identification and reduction of specific maladaptive CER strategies, particularly rumination-related processes, that show consistently strong associations with PSMU. Helping adolescents recognize habitual patterns such as rumination, self-blame, or blaming others may be especially important for understanding vulnerability to problematic use.

Second, the strategy-level findings highlight the value of targeted assessment and early identification. Assessments that capture adolescents’ reliance on specific CER strategies may provide useful information for identifying individuals at higher risk of PSMU. Such an approach may support more focused and individualized prevention efforts in educational and school-based settings.

Finally, the present results suggest that PSMU should be understood not merely as a matter of excessive use, but as a behavior closely linked to underlying cognitive and emotional coping processes. From a practical perspective, interventions that promote greater awareness of cognitive coping styles and encourage more adaptive emotion regulation may be associated with healthier and more balanced patterns of social media use among adolescents.

From an applied perspective, these findings also provide more concrete guidance for educators and clinicians. For example, school-based programs may incorporate brief cognitive-behavioral components that help students identify and modify maladaptive CER strategies such as rumination or self-blame. Similarly, clinicians may focus on training adolescents to shift from passive or maladaptive cognitive responses toward more active and problem-oriented coping strategies, which may be associated with reduced reliance on social media as a primary means of emotional regulation.

Several limitations of the present meta-analysis should be acknowledged, which also point to directions for future research.

First, although the three-level meta-analytic model accounted for both within- and between-study heterogeneity, the distribution of primary studies across certain moderators was uneven. Some subgroups were represented by a relatively small number of studies, and publication outlets contributed unequally to the pooled estimates. Such imbalances may be associated with reduced statistical power for detecting more fine-grained moderation effects and therefore call for cautious interpretation of subgroup findings. Moreover, the uneven representation of different CER strategies across studies, with rumination-related measures being disproportionately represented, may have influenced the overall effect size. This imbalance means that the findings may not fully represent all CER dimensions, and therefore should be interpreted with caution, particularly given the potential influence of publication bias and variation across publication types. In addition, some potential sources of heterogeneity, such as age, could not be further examined due to limited and inconsistent reporting across primary studies. Future meta-analyses would benefit from a more balanced accumulation of high-quality primary studies across publication formats, cultural contexts, and study designs.

Second, differences in how PSMU was measured across studies represent an additional limitation. Although the standardization of PSMU measures did not emerge as a significant moderator in the present analysis, primary studies relied on diverse instruments, dimensional structures, and scoring approaches. This variability may be associated with additional noise and reduced sensitivity for examining more detailed, dimension-specific associations. Future research using more theoretically aligned and psychometrically comparable measures may facilitate clearer interpretation and support more refined evidence synthesis.

Third, the present meta-analysis focused on synthesizing associations between CER and PSMU and therefore cannot directly address underlying psychological mechanisms. While the findings demonstrate substantial variability across CER types and specific strategies, the processes through which these regulatory strategies are associated with maladaptive social media use remain insufficiently understood. Future primary studies are encouraged to investigate potential mediating and moderating mechanisms—such as motivational, cognitive, or contextual factors—to clarify how and under what conditions different CER strategies are linked to problematic digital media behaviors.

Fourth, a related limitation concerns the uneven regional distribution of the included studies. Although region was examined as a potential moderator, a considerable proportion of the included samples were drawn from Asia (primarily China), with relatively limited representation from North America and Europe. This imbalance may have reduced the ability to detect potential regional or cultural differences. Importantly, this pattern likely reflects the current distribution of available research rather than limitations in the search or inclusion process. Future primary studies should include more geographically and culturally diverse samples to better examine the role of contextual factors in the relationship between CER and PSMU.

Taken together, addressing these limitations through more methodologically rigorous, theoretically informed, and culturally diverse primary research may help strengthen the empirical foundation of this field and improve the explanatory value of future research.