Teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation refer to their subjective assessment of how much their views and opinions are valued (OECD, 2018). Numerous studies have found that teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation are positively related to their job satisfaction. For example, employing the South African sample from TALIS 2018, one study found that teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation were positively related to their job satisfaction (Oduro et al., 2024). Employing Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) with samples from the U.S., Australia, Finland, and South Korea in TALIS 2018, another study found that teachers who felt undervalued showed lower job satisfaction (Akiba et al., 2023). This empirical finding regarding teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation is supported by evidence from teaching practices. Based on a sample of U.S. K-12 teachers, a further study found that increasing opportunities for teacher decision-making contributed to higher job satisfaction (Ingersoll, 2003). Additionally, teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation are positively correlated with engagement in PD activities. For example, employing U.S. data from TALIS 2018 and a series of advanced statistical methods (e.g., machine learning techniques), one study found that when teachers perceived their views were valued by policymakers and the media, they had a more positive attitude toward PD experiences (Yoon & Kim, 2023).

Teacher PD activity engagement refers to teachers’ participation in activities designed to enhance their professional skills and competencies (Kennedy, 2016). However, not all teachers hold positive attitudes toward teacher PD due to various reasons (Geldenhuys & Oosthuizen, 2015). Some teachers regarded participating in PD activities merely as an obligatory training that wasted time or a task aimed at achieving career promotion, rather than an opportunity to improve skills (Damianidou, 2024). These teachers usually show strong reluctance to engage in PD activities. In theory, these teachers are much more likely to be extrinsically motivated or altruistically motivated.

Teacher extrinsic motivation to teach refers to a psychological state driven by the pursuit of job-related external rewards (Tang et al., 2015), including favorable working conditions, competitive salaries, and career advancement opportunities (Fray & Gore, 2018). Some studies have found that teacher extrinsic motivation is positively correlated with job satisfaction. For example, one study found that teacher extrinsic motivation was positively related to job satisfaction in Pakistan (Nadim et al., 2012). Using a sample of over 700 Albanian secondary teachers, another study found that external motivation was positively correlated with job satisfaction (Tirana et al., 2023). Drawing upon a sample of 133 K-12 teachers in Lebanon, a further study found that extrinsic factors were correlated with teacher job satisfaction (Baroudi et al., 2022).

Teacher altruistic motivation (or social utility motivation) to teach is connected with altruistic fulfillment and altruistic reasons for teaching (Fray & Gore, 2018), including helping students, serving others, and contributing to society (Tang et al., 2015). Many studies have found that teacher altruistic motivation is positively correlated with job satisfaction. For instance, one study found that teacher altruistic motivation was more associated with job satisfaction than extrinsic motivation was (Nadim et al., 2012). A separate piece of research revealed that job satisfaction among teachers is more strongly linked to altruistic motivation than to external motivation (Tirana et al., 2023). Based on a sample of 300 teachers in Pakistan, another study confirmed a positive correlation between altruistic motivation and job satisfaction (Shah et al., 2012). A substantial body of research indicates a positive relationship between teachers’ altruistic motivation and their engagement in PD. For example, using a sample of grades 5–9 math teachers in the US, one study found that teachers who aimed to help students improve test scores, master math content, or understand student thinking, were more likely to engage in PD (Caddle et al., 2016). Another study, applying advanced statistical methods (e.g., LASSO) to the U.S. TALIS 2018 data, found that teachers with altruistic teaching motivation held more positive attitudes toward PD activities (Yoon & Kim, 2023).

Numerous studies have found that teacher PD is positively associated with job satisfaction. For instance, using HLM with a sample from 24 European countries in TALIS 2018, one study revealed that teacher PD had a strong positive correlation with job satisfaction (Smet, 2022). Based on a US sample, another study found that PD quality was positively associated with teacher job satisfaction (Kang & Mavrogordato, 2023). Regarding PD engagement, a further study found that highly participatory teachers showed higher job satisfaction than their less participatory teachers (Yoon & Kim, 2022).

This study was guided by Schwartz’s human values framework (Schwartz, 1992). Human values mainly include self-transcendence values and self-enhancement values (Cable & Edwards, 2004). Self-transcendence values emphasize contributing to society and maintaining close relationships with others. Self-enhancement values emphasize achieving high salary, job security, and prestige. Individuals with self-transcendence values typically make decisions driven by altruistic motivation. Individuals with self-enhancement values typically make decisions driven by extrinsic motivation. This conceptual framework applies not only to decision-making, including teacher PD engagement (Bigsby & Firestone, 2017) and factors influencing the choice of teaching (Giersch, 2016; Wang & Klassen, 2023), but also to the determinants of job satisfaction (Chang & Sung, 2024; Ma & Marion, 2025). Additionally, teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation stem from teachers’ desire and expectation to make contributions to the society. Thus, teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation can reflect their underlying self-transcendence values. Schwartz’s human values framework provides a conceptual grounding for our study.

The China context

From a global perspective, teaching is a public service calling that requires dedication and a deep concern for students. However, the choice to enter the teaching profession is not solely motivated by a love for it. Common motivations for entering the teaching profession include extrinsic motivation, a love of teaching (intrinsic motivation), and a belief in contributing to society (altruistic motivation). Additionally, teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation could be another reason to choose to become a teacher. Intrinsic and altruistic motivations are among the most common reasons for entering the teaching profession in countries and regions outside China (Fray & Gore, 2018). In China, there are more than 15.8 million basic education teachers (MOE, 2024), and 93.1% of in-service teachers are those for whom teaching was their first job (OECD, 2025). However, the proportion of teachers who have intrinsic and altruistic motivation for teaching remains relatively low. This is corroborated by the fact that since the 2000s, the Chinese government has issued a series of policies, such as the Targeted Teacher Training Plan, National Program to Cultivate Excellent Primary and Secondary School Teachers, and the Free Education for Future program to attract college graduates to the teaching profession by providing extrinsic incentives (Guo, 2024).

Goals of the study

This study investigated the mediating role of teachers’ PD activities in the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation and their motivation and job satisfaction. Specifically, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: Teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation were positively associated with job satisfaction.

H2: Teachers with higher PD engagement and work motivation were associated with higher job satisfaction.

The study sample comprised 2269 females (74.47%) and 778 males (25.53%) (see Table 1). The sample included 796 rural junior school teachers (26.12%) and 2251 urban junior school teachers (73.88%). More than 98% of teachers have a bachelor’s degree. The teaching experience of the participants was categorized into four groups: 5 years or less (17.13%), 6–10 years (15.65%), 11–20 years (32.42%), and more than 20 years (34.78%). The total sample consisted of 2560 public school teachers (84.02%), and 487 private school teachers (15.98%).

This paper used the Unmeasured Latent Method Construct (ULMC) approach to test for common method bias. A significant common method bias was considered present if the model fit improved substantially after adding a common method factor, specifically if there was an increase in CFI and TLI of more than 0.1 and a decrease in RMSEA of more than 0.05 (Chin et al., 2012). The results of the common method bias were presented in Table 2. Results suggested that RMSEA decreased by 0.003, CFI increased by 0.012, TLI increased by 0.011. The increase in fit indices did not exceed 0.1, and the decrease in fit indices did not exceed 0.05. Thus, common method bias was not found in this study.

Drawing on Schwartz’s human values framework, this study employed SEMs to test the hypothesized relationships between teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation, motivation, PD engagement, and job satisfaction. The fit statistics for the model, reported in Table 3, all fell within acceptable ranges: χ²/df = 4.278, CFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.926, RMSEA = 0.033, and SRMR = 0.048. The model yielded satisfactory fit indices across all measures examined (Muthén & Muthén, 2017).

The descriptive statistics and intercorrelations among the main variables are presented in Table 4. Teacher job satisfaction exhibited significant positive correlations with all key variables: extrinsic motivation (r = 0.249, p < 0.001), altruistic motivation (r = 0.319, p < 0.001), teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation (r = 0.436, p < 0.001), and professional development (r = 0.203, p < 0.001). Teacher PD demonstrated significant positive correlations with altruistic motivation (r = 0.162, p < 0.001) and teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation (r = 0.116, p < 0.001).

Figure 1 illustrates the standardized path coefficients of the SEM analysis. Except for the path from teacher extrinsic motivation to teacher PD activities, which was not significant (p > 0.05), all other paths were significant at the 99% confidence level.

First, according to the structural model, teacher altruistic motivation and teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation were positively and significantly associated with teacher engagement in PD activities. The path coefficient for teacher altruistic motivation on PD engagement was 0.181 (p < 0.001), and that for teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation on PD engagement was 0.116 (p < 0.001). Obviously, teacher extrinsic motivation showed a stronger correlation with PD engagement than did teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation. Second, engagement in PD activities was positively correlated with teacher job satisfaction (β = 0.164, p < 0.001).

Third, teacher extrinsic motivation demonstrated no significant association with PD engagement, with a nonsignificant path coefficient of 0.009 (p > 0.05). Overall, the results indicate that the H1 was supported, while H2 was partially supported. These questions remain to be examined: whether the mediating effects of teacher PD activities exist, and if so, to what extent.

Teachers’ perception of values and policy orientation and job satisfaction

The outcomes of the bootstrap method for mediation effects are summarized in Table 5. The path coefficient from teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation to job satisfaction was 0.492 (95% CI = [0.450, 0.532], p < 0.001), indicating a significant total effect. Of this total effect, the direct pathway accounted for 0.473 (95% CI = [0.431, 0.514], p < 0.001), and the indirect effect via mediators was 0.019 (95% CI = [0.009, 0.031], p < 0.001). The significance of both effects was confirmed by their 95% confidence intervals, which did not contain zero. Therefore, the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation and job satisfaction was transmitted via teachers’ participation in PD activities. These findings provide support for H1.

The total effect of teacher extrinsic motivation on job satisfaction was statistically significant, with an estimate of 0.116 (95% CI = [0.066, 0.167], p < 0.001).

The direct effect was 0.115 (95% CI = [0.065, 0.167], p < 0.001), while the indirect effect was 0.001 (95% CI = [−0.010, 0.013], p > 0.05), indicating that the indirect effect was not statistically significant. These results imply that the relationship between extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction was not transmitted through PD engagement.

The path coefficient from altruistic motivation to job satisfaction was 0.182 (95% CI = [0.132, 0.234], p < 0.001), indicating a significant total effect. The analysis yielded a significant direct effect of 0.153 (95% CI = [0.102, 0.204], p < 0.001) and a significant indirect effect of 0.030 (95% CI = [0.017, 0.045], p < 0.001). The 95% confidence intervals for both effects were entirely above zero, indicating that the direct and indirect effects were both significant. These findings support the mediating role of teacher PD activities in the altruistic motivation-job satisfaction relationship. H2 was therefore partially upheld by the findings.

Teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation were positively related to job satisfaction. This was consistent with existing studies (Akiba et al., 2023; Oduro et al., 2024) and supported H1. One possible explanation is as follows: when teachers’ perspectives are emphasized by policymakers and media, their professional needs are much more likely to be addressed by school leadership. This undoubtedly increases their job satisfaction (Akiba et al., 2023; Oduro et al., 2024). With the improvement in teachers’ status in China, their opinions or views are increasingly valued by policymakers and school stakeholders (VarkeyFoundation, 2019). Then, education policy that incorporates teachers’ views is more likely to gain their support. Meanwhile, teachers develop feelings of fulfillment and accomplishment through engagement in education policy-making. When the valuing of teachers’ views become a widely recognized societal norm, they perceive their voices as receiving media and policy attention. These teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation were related to job satisfaction.

Engagement in PD activities mediated the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation and job satisfaction. This finding supported H2. One possible explanation is as follows: By participating in PD activities, teachers can network with more experts and teachers. This undoubtedly broadens participants’ horizons and helps them understand trends and changes in education policy (Postholm, 2012). This new knowledge can help teachers provide more effective and widely-accepted suggestions to policymakers. Accordingly, these suggestions—based on policy requirements and teachers’ actual needs—are much more likely to be adopted by decision-makers. Once the suggestions are adopted, teachers’ sense of fulfillment naturally leads to greater job satisfaction. In this regard, PD activities partially mediate the relationship between teachers’ perception of value and policy orientation and job satisfaction.

Engagement in PD activities mediated the relationship between altruistic motivation and job satisfaction. Moreover, the indirect effect of altruistic motivation on job satisfaction was larger than that of teachers’ perceptions of value and policy orientation. This finding not only supported H2 but also aligned with Schwartz’s human values framework. The theory posits that individuals with self-transcendence values emphasize their societal value and contributions, which demonstrates a strong altruistic incentive. Contributing to society and helping others benefit from their actions are among the main sources of job satisfaction. Participating in PD activities helps teachers improve their teaching skills and classroom management, deepen their knowledge, and broaden their theoretical perspectives (Postholm, 2012). The new skills acquired from PD activities will enrich and enhance the schools’ educational and teaching practices. Therefore, teachers with altruistic motivation to teach are likely to experience high job satisfaction, as their work is perceived to significantly benefit both students and schools. Additionally, teacher altruistic motivation was positively related to job satisfaction, supporting prior studies (Nadim et al., 2012; Shah et al., 2012; Tirana et al., 2023). This finding supported H2 and aligned with Schwartz’s human values framework. One possible explanation is that individuals with self-transcendence values derive satisfaction from contributing to society and assisting others. They contribute to society not for external recognition or rewards, but for reasons beyond personal preference. They are generally unconcerned with personal costs and benefits (Elster, 2006). The teaching profession is built on dedication and love. It calls on teachers to commit to supporting students’ holistic development, thereby cultivating well-rounded graduates for society (Mart, 2013). If individuals with strong altruistic motivation enter the teaching profession, it demonstrates a strong alignment between their personal values and occupational demands. Therefore, teacher altruistic motivation can be a significant factor in enhancing their job satisfaction.

Engagement in PD activities did not mediate the relationship between teacher extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. This finding provided partial support for H2 and was consistent with Schwartz’s human values framework. The theory argues that individuals with self-enhancement values prioritize extrinsic rewards, timely feedback, and short-term interests (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan, 1995). Generally, a primary aim of teacher PD is the enhancement of teaching skills and broader educational skills. However, participation in PD activities requires substantial time and financial investment (Damianidou, 2024). This finding contrasts with the reward preferences typical of teachers with strong extrinsic motivation. After all, these teachers typically prioritize a stable career path and a reliable income. They have little incentive to acquire new skills for the purpose of teaching improvement. They lack strong career ambition and are focused primarily on fulfilling their basic teaching tasks within a uniform teacher compensation system that provides little financial incentive for excellence (Cai et al., 2018). In this regard, they are less likely to actively participate in PD activities. Additionally, this positive relationship between extrinsic motivation and job satisfaction is in line with previous studies (Baroudi et al., 2022; Nadim et al., 2012; Tirana et al., 2023). This finding supported Schwartz’s human values framework and confirmed H2. One possible explanation is as follows: individuals driven by self-enhancement values prioritize career stability, income reliability, and lighter workloads, particularly during global economic downturn with high unemployment rates (Rucinski, Melanie, 2023). Like many other education systems (VarkeyFoundation, 2019), public secondary teachers in China benefit from a steady career path, along with relatively low work pressure, stable incomes, and high social status (Zhang et al., 2019). These career characteristics attract individuals with extrinsic motivation to become teachers. In other words, the teaching profession is a desirable career choice for the extrinsically motivated. In this regard, when their extrinsic motivation is fulfilled, teachers who are primarily driven by extrinsic rewards experience high job satisfaction.