Among the personality frameworks, the Big-Five model—comprising Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness—stands as the most widely accepted and psychometrically robust. Originating from the pioneering lexical studies of Allport and Odbert (1936) and the factor-analytic work of Cattell (1943), the model was later refined by Norman (1963), Goldberg (1990), and Costa and McCrae (1992), who developed the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) to assess these five domains. Collectively, these traits have demonstrated substantial predictive power for numerous psychological outcomes, including self-esteem. For instance, Robins et al. (2001) found that the Big-Five traits accounted for 34% of the variance in self-esteem, with Neuroticism (negatively), Extraversion, and Conscientiousness being the strongest predictors. Similarly, Amirazodi and Amirazodi (2011) reported that all five traits significantly influenced self-esteem among Iranian university students, while Hutz et al. (2014) observed that—except for Openness—self-esteem correlated significantly with all Big-Five traits in samples from Brazil and the United States (see Table 1).

Gendered differences. Of additional interest is the gender dimension of self-esteem in Sudan. Contrary to many findings from Western contexts—where men typically report higher self-esteem—evidence from Sudan and similar African contexts suggests that women may exhibit higher self-esteem levels. This has been attributed to the resilience developed by women in overcoming sociocultural and economic barriers (Mayungbo, 2016; Herbst, 2020). Sudanese men, by contrast, may experience lower self-esteem due to economic hardship and traditional provider expectations. Such patterns highlight the necessity of interpreting self-esteem within its cultural, economic, and gendered contexts.

Goals of the study. The present study examined the relationships between the Big-Five personality traits—Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience—and self-esteem among university Sudanese students by gender.

The present study addresses the following hypotheses:

H1: There are gender differences in self-esteem and the Big Five Personality traits.

H2: The Big Five personality traits predict self-esteem for both male and female students differently.

A convenience sample of 583 undergraduate students (299 men, 284 women) from the University of Khartoum participated voluntarily in this study. Participants were full-time students aged between 18 and 30 years (M = 22.7, SD = 3.19), enrolled in various colleges and departments across the university, representing a diversity of socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds. This broad representation reflects the heterogeneity of the university’s student body.

Inclusion criteria required participants to be currently enrolled undergraduate students capable of providing informed consent. Students not enrolled during the data collection period or unable to provide consent were excluded. The sample size was determined based on effect sizes reported in prior studies conducted in non-Western contexts and was considered adequate to achieve sufficient statistical power for detecting medium-to-large effects.

Study approval was granted by the University of Khartoum, Faculty of Arts Research Board. Participants provided informed consent and were assured confidentiality. Participants consented to the study, they were informed about the purpose of the study and assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. Participation was entirely voluntary, and students were permitted to decline or withdraw at any point without penalty. Data were collected during regular class time by trained research assistants.

Data analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics software. Prior to hypothesis testing, data were screened to ensure they met the assumptions for parametric analyses. Normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, potential outliers were examined using boxplots, and multicollinearity was evaluated using Variance Inflation Factors (VIF). A Principal Components factor analysis (with a varimax rotation) of the scale scores identified two factors for both men and women that were similar and accounting for 60% and 58% of the total variance, respectively (see Table 2). The first factor in both men and women could be labeled positive personality traits. The Big-Five personality traits of conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness were the scales with the highest loadings. The second factor could be labeled self-esteem vs. neuroticism.

All variables met the criteria for normality, and no extreme outliers or multicollinearity issues were found.

Independent-samples t-tests and stepwise multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine which of the Big-Five traits best predicted self-esteem, separately for male and female participants.

Results revealed significant correlations between the Big Five traits and self-esteem for both genders, although the predictors differed. Women’s self-esteem was predicted by extraversion and conscientiousness, while men’s self-esteem was influenced by all five personality traits except openness. This suggests that gender roles and social expectations in Sudan play a crucial role in shaping self-perception.

In Sudan’s collectivistic cultural context, women often juggle multiple social and familial responsibilities. Traits such as conscientiousness—associated with organization, dependability, and goal orientation—and extraversion—linked to social engagement and community participation—may enhance women’s sense of competence and belonging, reinforcing higher self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Eagly & Wood, 2012). Conversely, men’s self-esteem appears to depend on a broader constellation of traits, including emotional stability, openness, and agreeableness, reflecting societal expectations that men fulfill multiple roles as providers, leaders, and decision-makers (Eagly, 1987; Bleidorn et al., 2016).

These findings support social role theory, suggesting that gendered self-esteem differences arise from culturally embedded role expectations. In contexts where women’s contributions increasingly extend beyond domestic roles—to education, employment, and community leadership—traits fostering interpersonal effectiveness and self-regulation become central to self-esteem (Wood & Eagly, 2015).

The results also highlight the importance of cultural and socioeconomic conditions in shaping self-esteem. In contrast to individualistic societies where autonomy and personal achievement are prioritized, Sudan’s collectivist orientation emphasizes interdependence, social cohesion, and contribution to family and community (Markus & Kitayama, 2010) explain why women derive self-esteem from socially oriented traits such as extraversion and conscientiousness, which facilitate cooperation, trust, and community engagement.

Moreover, Sudan’s ongoing political and economic instability—including conflict, inflation, and unemployment—likely impacts gendered self-esteem differently. Men’s roles as economic providers may heighten vulnerability to low self-esteem when financial stability is threatened (Elamin & Omair, 2010). In contrast, women’s expanding access to education and social initiatives provides alternative sources of self-worth, consistent with findings from other African and Arab contexts where women’s empowerment is linked to enhanced psychological well-being (Assaad et al., 2023).

This study underscores the need to contextualize psychological theories developed in Western populations when applied to non-Western societies. It demonstrates that the predictive role of personality traits in self-esteem is shaped by gendered social expectations and cultural norms. The findings align with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), suggesting that self-esteem flourishes when individuals experience competence, relatedness, and autonomy—each expressed differently across cultural settings.

From a practical standpoint, interventions to promote self-esteem in Sudan should consider gender and cultural contexts. For women, initiatives that enhance self-worth, while for men, programs addressing economic insecurity and mental health could mitigate the effects of social stressors on self-esteem.

Although this study contributes novel insights, several limitations warrant acknowledgment. The sample was restricted to one university, limiting generalizability. Future research should incorporate participants from diverse regions and socioeconomic backgrounds. Longitudinal designs could elucidate how political and social changes influence personality–self-esteem dynamics over time. Future studies might also examine additional personality constructs, such as optimism or resilience, and their interaction with mental health outcomes (Orth & Robins, 2024). Exploring psychopathological variables such as depression and anxiety would further clarify the mechanisms linking personality and self-esteem in Sudanese populations.

The central finding is the clear demonstration that the relationship between personality and self-esteem is profoundly shaped by gendered social and cultural context.

Cultural Reversal of Gender Differences: Contrary to typical findings in Western, individualistic societies, Sudanese women exhibited significantly higher mean self-esteem than men. This pattern is interpreted as reflecting the influence of unique cultural and socioeconomic dynamics, where women’s resilience may foster a stronger sense of competence.

This research contributes to the existing literature by highlighting the need for culturally specific investigations into personality and self-esteem. The findings underscore the importance of considering cultural context in psychological research, particularly in non-Western societies, and could inform interventions aimed at improving mental health and well-being in Sudan.

Future research should incorporate participants from diverse regions and socioeconomic backgrounds to enhance generalizability. Longitudinal designs could also be used to examine how political and social changes influence the personality-self-esteem dynamic over time. Lastly, investigating additional personality constructs and psychopathological variables such as depression and anxiety could further clarify these mechanisms.