The world’s population increased to 7.4 billion in 2016 and is expected to reach 9.4 billion in 2050. With this diverse increase in population, ensuring global food security is a huge challenge [1]. Successful agricultural production is widely dependent on chemical fertilizers, which have significantly increased grain production globally for the last six decades [2]. Besides this, to overcome nutrient deficiency, farmers use various doses and types of fertilizers to achieve the maximum yield [3]. Farmers use high doses of nitrogen (N) based fertilizers to enhance plant growth which also exhausts soil phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) and leads to nutrient-depleted soils [4]. As a result, long-term excessive use of chemical fertilizers has resulted in soil fertility and quality decline and increased environmental pollution worldwide, especially in developing countries [5].

According to the World Bank, China’s fertilizer consumption is 30% higher than global fertilizer consumption. However, China’s total cultivated land is only 9% of the world’s cultivated land [2]. The excessive use of fertilizers can adversely affect water quality, soil acidification, organic matter depletion, and higher gas emissions contributing to environmental pollution [6]. Keeping the current scenario in view, the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture announced the “Zero Increase Action Plan” in 2015 to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and increase crop yield with minimizing environmental concerns by 2020 [7,8]. So, it is challenging for the scientific community to sustain food security, improve crop yield, reduce environmental costs, and achieve sustainable agriculture production [9].

Water is essential for plant growth, and crops consume a huge amount of water [5]. Along with chemical fertilizers, overuse of irrigation water also depletes groundwater quality, ultimately affecting food security [9]. In addition, the sole long-term application of chemical fertilizers without organic inputs also triggers depletion of soil organic matter (SOM), disrupted soil structure, soil fertility decline, and reduced soil biodiversity [10]. Therefore, it is crucial to identify and understand the role of chemical fertilizers on plant growth, the association of irrigation and fertilization management, and countermeasures to sustainable agricultural production and soil quality [5].

Corn (Zea mays L.) is an important crop worldwide for agriculture and the economy as it is a food, fuel, and feed source. In China, corn is a major cereal crop and is intensively cultivated in two regions, Northeast China and North-Central China, which ranks China as the largest corn producer [11]. In North China, Ningxia Plain has a crucial role in agricultural production, highly dependent on the yellow river [12]. To achieve the aim of higher agricultural output by the farming community, overdose fertilization and increasing unnecessary irrigation practices have emerged the problems of non-point pollution [13]. Irrespective of higher production, China is not a significant exporter because corn’s consumption is higher than its production.

Moreover, the gap between the supply and demand of corn is also increasing in China [14]. In addition, corn is a source of 365 kcal 100 g⁻¹ and contains about 9.4 g protein, 1.2 g ash, 7.3 g fibre, and 74.3 g carbohydrates [15]. With the growing population of China, challenges regarding food security, increasing purchase power, and demand for animal feed and fuel have also been faced. The agriculture sector is the backbone of China for the citizens and the country’s economy [1]. Various studies have documented the effects of long-term fertilization on corn production, but information regarding the interaction of long-term fertilizer management with reduced water application is lacking. This raises the need for the current study to ensure higher corn production with low water consumption, which will help ensure food security and minimize environmental risk.

Keeping all the aspects in view, a series of long-term field experiments were conducted with the objectives to (1) evaluate the impact of the six-year application of different strategies of fertilizer and water management on corn production, (2) assess the interaction of fertilizers and water management on soil properties, and (3) identification of optimum management strategies for sustainable agriculture to save the soil health. Our study hypothesises that the integrated application of organic and inorganic fertilizers and limited water irrigation will improve the soil properties and help the farmers achieve desired maize yield.

A six-year repeated corn field experiment with different fertilization and water management practices showed significant changes in soil properties (Figs. 1–5). The results indicated that organic fertilizer combined with chemical fertilization significantly reduced the soil pH (Figs. 1a–1b). This might be associated with to release of organic acids from organic inputs [22,23]. Chemical fertilization deteriorates the soil quality and is the cause for the accumulation of various salts that increase the soil pH as well. Soil moisture content was highest in CON compared to other treatments where water-saving irrigation techniques were used (Figs. 1c–1d). High moisture levels might be due to excessive irrigation. The SOM was significantly improved with BMP2 application (Figs. 1e–1f) and might be associated with using organic fertilizer and water-saving irrigation. The use of organic amendments improves aggregate stability and SOM content. Moreover, it also enhances soil-water retention and improves soil structure [24].

Soil TN was significantly improved with the application of BMP3 (Figs. 2a and 2b). It can be related to the use of controlled released fertilizers that minimizes nutrient losses and improves N-use efficiency and soil N status in soil [25]. Moreover, soil NH₄-N was increased with higher doses of N-based chemical fertilizers (Figs. 2c and 2d). Comparatively, slow-release fertilizers slowly released N; thus, the soil NH₄-N concentration is also low [26]. Soil NO₃-N increased with organic fertilizers (Figs. 2e and 2f) as organic matter improves the soil’s water-holding capacity and minimizes nitrate leaching [27]. Studies also reported that the organic substitution under equal N conditions improves the soil nutrient balance and prevents soil nutrient leaching. Additionally, manures can improve soil structure and cation exchange capacity and ultimately increase NO₃-N immobilization in soil [28].

The combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers enhanced the soil’s total and available P concentration (Figs. 3a–3d). This might be due to the P content in manure [29], mobilization of native P in soil, inhibition formation of soil complexes, increasing the labile pool, and decreasing the non-labile P pool [30]. However, the excessive use of mineral fertilizers can also increase the soil available P concentration, which can cause P leaching and environmental pollution [31]. Organic fertilization also improves the soil’s nutrient status, including K (Figs. 4a–4d). Soil TK contents were improved by applying organic fertilisers as they are a source of nutrients and improve soil fertility and nutrient status [32]. The highest available K level in the soil can be associated with the high inorganic K usage and irrigation, which causes higher percolation of K⁺ ions and K leaching in soil.

Straw and grain yield improved with the combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers with managed irrigation practice (Figs. 5a–5d). It might be associated with organics that increase soil nutrient levels, enhance organic matter levels, reduce acidification, and improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, as similar results have been identified in various studies [19,21,33]. As published literature describes, organics also improve soil nutrient availability and plant uptake, which is a reason behind improved crop yield [23]. In addition, releasing macro and micronutrients from the poultry manure can increase the maize yield [34]. Organic manure application also has the potential to enhance the maize yield in subsequent years due to the improved SOM and microbial activity [28].

Correlation analysis showed a positive relationship between crop yield and soil nutrient status and identifies that improving soil fertility status will solve the issue of food security and sustainable agriculture (Fig. 6). The study concludes that proper fertilizer and water management practices can improve soil fertility status and corn productivity. Furthermore, the quality and nutrient concentration of corn needs to be addressed. The impact of such fertilization and irrigation management practices on nutrient losses, global warming, and greenhouse gas emissions is a research gap. In addition, studies are required focusing on irrigation water type, fertilizer type, geographical position, and optimum dose for chemical fertilizer input. The study recommends the practical implementation of organic fertilizer, controlled irrigation, and inorganic fertilisers for the betterment of corn production and sustainable agriculture.

The results of this study suggest that combining organic and inorganic fertilizers with controlled irrigation improves the soil’s physical and chemical properties along with corn yield and productivity. The long-term balanced use of chemical fertilizers can effectively sustain agriculture, reduce environmental pollution, and cope with food security and water shortage challenges. The impacts of such strategies on the biological properties of soil, groundwater quality, and global warming need to be addressed in the future. Furthermore, studies are required focusing on irrigation water type, fertilizer type, geographical position, and optimum dose for chemical fertilizer input.