Plants are commonly impacted by a variety of abiotic stresses, including salt, metal toxicity, drought, temperature extremes, and nutrient deficiency. These stresses have the potential to impair a plant’s capacity to grow or die [1]. Nutrient deficiency is one of the most common abiotic stresses encountered by plants, which can exacerbate the effects of other stresses. The majority of research over the last few centuries has focused on the connection between abiotic stress and plant nutrition. Studies have demonstrated that several crucial macro- and micro-nutrients support plants’ ability to survive abiotic stress [2]. Nitrogen (N) is one of the nutrients with the greatest influence on plant response against abiotic stresses. It is important for the growth and ontogeny of plants, in addition to being a key component of plant proteins and other critical components [3,4]. Lack of N can result in slower plant growth, fewer fruits and vegetables, and plants are more vulnerable to abiotic stress. In drought-stressed plants, N deficit can direct to a decrement in water usage efficiency (WUE), making them more susceptible to drought stress [5]. Numerous studies have shown that N addition to soil can boost plant tolerance to drought stress by enhancing WUE, thereby reducing water loss caused by transpiration.

Phosphorus (P) is another macro-nutrient that affects how plants respond to abiotic stress. It is essential for energy production, metabolism, cell division, and other vital cellular processes [6]. Phosphorus deficiency can impair plant growth, reduce yields, and make plants more vulnerable to abiotic stress. Consumption of P can enhance plant resistance to abiotic stresses [7]. For instance, supplementing plants under salt stress with P can encourage growth while minimizing the negative effects of the salts through ion balance and osmotic adjustment. Similarly, P addition to soils with high amounts of toxic metals can hasten plant growth and development [8]. Similarly, calcium (Ca) is vital for cell wall production, the activation of enzymes, and many other vital cellular processes [9]. Plants deficient in Ca may grow slowly, produce fewer fruits and vegetables, and be more vulnerable to abiotic stresses. Multiple research investigations have demonstrated that adding Ca to soil improves plant resistance to abiotic stress [10]. In heat-stressed plants, for example, Ca application can improve plant development and reduce the making of reactive oxygen species, which can lead to oxidative harm. Similar to this, Ca therapy can promote plant growth and mitigate the negative effects of salt on plants under salt stress [11]. Many investigations have been reported on the impacts of macro- and micro-nutrient deficiency on plant growth and productivity in the form of stresses. The available information about the relationship between nutrient availability and their transport mechanisms affecting abiotic stress in plants was missing. This comprehensive review elucidates a state-of-the-art review of the literature about the same to fill this gap.

The macronutrients required for robust plant development are more densely packed in plant tissue than 0.1% based on the dried matter [12]. Macro-nutrient perniciousness stress is unique in the environment since macro-nutrients are needed in high quantities [13]. However, a lack of one or more macro-nutrients has a significant negative impact on several physiological traits of plants, including transporters and aquaporins.

The concentrations of micro-nutrients in most agricultural soils are deficient as indicated by the crop growth stages. This deficiency is replenished through adaptive mechanisms in plants as well as their application to soils [37]. Even though the amount of micro-nutrients in the soil may be enough overall, factors in the soil such as pH, microorganisms, and water status influence how easily those nutrients are absorbed by plants [48]. As mentioned below, it is necessary to study how transporters and aquaporins interact with one another. The micro-nutrients are transported through the major transporter families. The main efflux transporters are CAX and HMA, while the main inflow transporters are ZIP, NRAMP, and YSL [49]. The concentration of the nutrient and the cell’s location affect the precise tasks that they do. Every family has a member that can transport a variety of micro-nutrients, but the isoforms are quite specific [50]. However, under insufficient circumstances, certain over-expressed transporters can transport other similar cations, increasing their concentration.

The primary outcome of drought is a decrease in crop development and production, up to 90% [90]. Less cell turgor results from less water availability, which also inhibits cell elongation and promotes stomatal closure. This also reduces nutrient and water uptake as well as CO₂ uptake and photosynthetic efficiency. The majority of the genes encoding nitrate transporters and the enzymes in charge of NO³⁻ absorption and immobilization are de-regulated in reaction to drought stress [91]. However, it was discovered that within one hour of exposure to various abiotic stresses, the formulation of BjNRT1.1 and BjNRT1.5 was increased in Brassica juncea L. plants, showing an early reaction of N accretion on recognition of the initiation of stress. However, de-regulation occurred after 24 h, impacting the majority of N transporters, including BjNRT2.1. However, different plant species and subspecies within the same plant species have distinct management strategies for NRTs. However, an N-efficient variety maintained nearly consistent levels of NO₃⁻ transporter expression, including key sensors such as NRT1.1, NRT2.1, and NRT2.2, suggesting an enhanced capacity for NO₃⁻ consumption [92]. The high-octane N cultivar displayed a curiosity for AMT1.2 (NH₄⁺ transporter) overexpression, suggesting its potential to detect changes in soil N forms and optimize resource utilization under drought conditions. Phosphate (Pi) absorption serves as an indicator of drought tolerance in plants [92]. It is hypothesized that differences in the composition of the PHT group of carriers are associated with Pi uptake, as demonstrated by individual instances like PtPHO9 and PtPHT1.2 in poplar, MdPHT1.5, MdPHT1.7, MdPHT4.7, MdPHT3.7, and MdPHT4.3 in apple. Interestingly, no genes were downregulated under drought stress in this context. Regarding K⁺ transporters, drought stress significantly influences the expression of the grapevine K⁺ transporter VvK1.1, which is analogous to the AKT1 channel in A. thaliana. Notably, VvK1.1 expression is pronounced in berries, particularly within the phloem vasculature, indicating its importance in facilitating K⁺ uptake into berry tissues, particularly under drought conditions. Furthermore, under drought stress conditions, there was an increase in the expression of CarAKT1,2, a potassium transporter responsible for K⁺ influx, and CarGORK, which plays a role in facilitating K⁺ efflux, in chickpeas. Although CarKAT1.1 and HvAKT1 are expressed less in chickpea and barley, respectively, this shows that the alteration in the transcript degree of a few AKT1 family elements may not be about drought tolerance. The reaction appears to be dependent on time- and genotype. The findings illustrate that precise management of K⁺ transporters is required to formulate a plan to counteract the stress of drought. In grapevines, drought stress increases the expression of VvK1.1, which promotes K⁺ build-up in berry tissues, which is essential for osmotic adjustment. Drought stress in chickpeas affects K⁺ uptake and efflux by inducing CarAKT1.2 and inhibiting CarGORK, exposing the intricate regulatory network of ion transporters in response to water constraints [93]. The Ca²⁺ is essential since it is a signaling molecule. Depending on the degree and length of the stress, transient Ca²⁺ peaks in the cytoplasm regulate the activity of several genes and proteins in plants in response [94]. As a result, depending on the tissues and specific tasks, the regulation of calcium transporters beneath drought stress varies substantially. Plant Ca²⁺ pumps play a role in removing Ca²⁺ from the cytosol. The expression of P-IIB Ca-ATPase PCA1 increased in Physcomitrella patens, B&S, in reaction to lack of water. Some self-inhibited calcium ATPases (ACAs) and ER-type ATPases (ECAs) pumps were found to respond to short-term dehydration stress in rice. ACA5 and ACA7 were significantly increased in roots and seedlings, meanwhile, ACA3, ACA5, and ACA7 were upregulated in mature leaves. During dehydration stress, the levels of BoACA4 and BoACA11 in levels of Brassica oleracea L. remained elevated for 24 h [19]. For the Ca²⁺ exchanger’s A. thaliana and rice CAX, transcript levels decreased in response to a water deficit. The transportation of B from the symplast to the apoplast is facilitated by a distinct transporter known as BOR2. This transporter accelerates the process of B release to ensure the growth of the cell wall in root cells, which is of utmost importance to plant cells [94]. Furthermore, B. oleracea BoCAX1 expression levels in leaf tissues steadily increased in response to drought stress [95]. Similar to how different cultivars of similar plant species or even different portions of the same tissue exhibit distinct drought tolerance strategies, distinct aquaporin homologs in different plant species also react differently to drought stress [96]. Different PIPs, TIPs, and NIPs homologs were up- and down-regulated in response to drought stress [97], according to root transcriptome analysis. Additionally, various homologs react differently depending on the degree and type of stress application. The aquaporins subgroup most susceptible to drought stress is PIPs, which results in a downregulation of their total transcription, particularly in roots. It was found that only a small subset of PIP genes, predominantly from the PIP1 subgroup, were upregulated in select tissues and during drought, especially in leaves. This increase of particular PIP1 subgroup isoforms in leaves suggests that they participate in gas and water exchange as well as stomatal behavior beneath stress [98].

Salinity is among most of the prevalent abiotic stresses on plants around the globe. Around 800 million hectares (6%) of the world’s land area is impacted by salinity [99]. Saline soil is characterized by an osmotic pressure of approximately 0.2 MPa and an electrical conductivity (EC) greater than 4 dS m⁻¹. The prime major crops are glycophytes, which are vulnerable to saline stress, and this stress causes considerable decreases in agricultural yield even at moderate environmental salt levels [100]. The salinization of soil has been a problem as a result of both natural and human-caused changes [101], and it is predicted that climate change will make it worse. As a result, there has been an increase in scientific investigation into the mechanisms underpinning plant’s ability to tolerate salt. The establishment of halophytic plants as fresh crops or the betterment of the primary crop species’ tolerance through breeding with or transferring genes from halophytes are only two of the many solutions to the salinity issue that have been identified. Two stages to the salt buildup in the soil cause plant stress: progressive ionic and nutritional stress is caused by the competition between ionic varieties of nutrients and saline ions (Na⁺, Cl⁻) and a decrease in water consumption, which induces rapid osmotic and water stress [102]. As a result, there have been modifications to the primary carbon and nitrogen metabolism in plant cells. The levels of several signaling molecules, the reduction of protein synthesis, and the change of water’s transmembrane mobility are all specifically impacted, as well as NO₃⁻ uptake and transport via roots [103]. There are three basic types of plant responses or tolerances for coping with this stress: (1) Osmotic stress tolerance, with the main response being a decrease in Lp and a suppression of root water uptake; (2) Na⁺ exception from leaf blades to prevent Na from building up to dangerous levels, and (3) intracellular Na compartmentalization to prevent toxic Na buildup in the cytoplasm.

The efficiency of these tolerance processes varies depending on the type of plant, being either halophytic or glycophytic. The impact of saline stress is directly connected to nutrient stress caused by inadequate absorption of necessary nutrients from the soil due to the excessive presence of Na⁺ and Cl^–, leading to the hindrance of beneficial ion uptake [104]. The ratio of K⁺ to Na⁺ in inner metabolically dynamic tissue and a competent Ca²⁺ state, which is a component of the Na⁺ expulsion signaling procedure, play a crucial role in salt tolerance. To counteract salt stress, response, and tolerance mechanisms rely heavily on nutrient transporters. Extensive research has focused on the regulation of cellular ion homeostasis and salt tolerance is regulated through ion-specific transporters such as Na⁺ and K⁺. The genes for these transporters are either high- or low-regulated in response to salt stress, depending on the kind of plant or degree of resistance [105]. The plant’s reaction to this issue is just as crucial for developing salt tolerance, as salty stress can also disrupt the balance of other ions, such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, or NO₃⁻. Accordingly, numerous studies, mostly in A. thaliana, have established that the regulatory mechanisms of CAX transporters H⁺/Ca²⁺ antiporters to promote tolerance are finely tuned during exposure to salt stress [106]. Specifically, the response of CAX formulation to salinity is dependent on the isoform. The activity of OsHKT1.5 in the root autumnal region was notably enhanced due to the Mg²⁺ transported by OsMGT1, the Mg transporter. Because it prevents Na⁺ from building up in the shoots by keeping it out of the xylem, OsHKT1.5 is essential for this stress tolerance. Mg²⁺ may be needed for the stereo-composition of the OsHKT1.5 protein, even though the precise procedure of its activation is unrecognized. For the nitrate iron (NO₃⁻), specific transporters known as NRT play a crucial role [107]. The altered NO₃^– absorption during saline stress will be caused by nitrate transporters, with a focus on NRT2, whose expression is mainly observed in the roots, as mentioned earlier. For instance, the NRT2.1 gene is de-regulated in plants with high salinity. Because NRT2.1 is intricated in encouraging lateral roots, a decrease in its mRNA expression may potentially have a detrimental effect on nitrate uptake when subjected to salt stress.

As mentioned earlier, salinity stress is closely linked to the plant’s water status; in particular, there is a rapid decrease in water transport rates. Thus, a water channel is essential for both the mechanisms of toleration and the response to this stress. Salinity modifies the expression of aquaporin genes and results in biochemical alterations in these proteins [108]. These adjustments are made to manage water transport and preserve water homeostasis. A broad pattern for aquaporin behavior under salt stress is difficult to pin down. Some studies make broad generalizations, such as the finding that PIP and TIP transcript quantities in A. thaliana drop by 60% to 75% over the means to endless following salt treatment (100 mM NaCl). The impact differs depending on the aquaporin type, stress duration or intensity, and plant and tissue tolerance [109]. PIP2.2 and PIP2.3 were increased in aerial portions following brief exposure to NaCl, but PIP2.6 was downregulated. PIP1.5, on the other hand, was downregulated in the roots of A. thaliana seedlings, whereas PIP1.1, PIP1.2, PIP1.3, and PIP2.7 were upregulated. The primary difference between this study and the one previously advertised was the age of the plants, which was 2 weeks in the first study and only 8 days in the second. The PIP2.7 formulations were suppressed in A. thaliana seedlings beneath salt stress. Similarly, it has been demonstrated that following 15 days of NaCl treatment, the expression of PIP1 and PIP2 was reduced in broccoli plant roots, despite an increase in PM levels of both proteins. Interestingly, the roots’ ability to transport water was compromised after prolonged exposure to saline stress for 15 days. To learn more about how these proteins respond to salinity, it is routine practice to overexpress several aquaporin genes. In this regard, numerous studies have demonstrated that transgenic plants with specific aquaporin genes overexpressed had greater salinity tolerance, such as PdPIP1.2 in date palms [110]. It has also been suggested that other aquaporin subfamilies, such as the NIP subfamily, contribute to salt tolerance. For example, TaNIP expression in winter wheat was enhanced in salinity, at the same time transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing the TaNIP gene have excessive salt tolerance. Various mechanisms may be involved in the enhanced salt tolerance: the accretion of simpatico solutes to amend osmotic adjustment, the antioxidant defense system is strengthened, and K⁺/Na⁺ concentrations decreased while the K⁺/Na⁺ ratio is preserved [111]. Regardless of how salinity affects aquaporin gene formulation, this stress alters the function and status of aquaporins at the protein level. For instance, changes in the cytosolic pH and Ca²⁺ levels result in alterations to the aquaporins. Because of a pH-sensitive His residue that assists keep the aquaporins shut, salt-sensitive plants undergo a decrease in cytosolic pH, which results in aquaporins closure. The inhibition of aquaporins and the decrease in cytosolic Ca²⁺ brought on by salt stress. Specific nutrient transporters and aquaporins likely play a vital role in preserving cell homeostasis and improving salt tolerance in plants [112] given the necessity of nutrition and water transport for healthy plant development under saline stress. By suppressing the formulation of Na-specific transporter (SOS2), Arabidopsis transgenic plants were able to produce an abundance of salt-tolerant plants. A H⁺/Ca²⁺ antiporter, CAX1, may be negatively regulated by SOS₂, which raises the possibility that NIP is mired in Ca²⁺ homeostasis, a salt stress reaction that regulates the cytosolic pH. Another example of this is the interaction between PIP aquaporins and NRT2.1 (a NO₃⁻ transporter) in A. thaliana. NO₃⁻ and NRT2.1 influence the alteration of Lp, exhibiting a positive relationship between Lp and NO₃⁻ concentration [113]. The regulation of PIP aquaporins plays a crucial role in water transport, as they are primarily responsible for altering Lp, thus forming a connection between PIPs and water transport. As we indicated before, NRT2.1 regulates aquaporins at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional stages, and it has been observed that roots exposed to salinity have decreased NRT2.1 abundance. As a result, PIP aquaporins may contain fewer molecules or function less effectively. A decline in PIP aquaporins function would lower Lp, a plant reaction to salt stress (Fig. 1). The existing literature and research on saline stress and plant responses suggest that the control of Lp when exposed to salinity may be influenced by both internal and external NO₃⁻ concentrations, as well as the actions of NRT2.1, via the regulation of PIP aquaporins [114].

The major environmental aspect that hinders plant development, growth, and dispersion of vegetation is extreme heat, which is a significant abiotic stressor for plants [1]. Weather is characterized by extreme temperature events as a result of climate change will have an impact on agricultural production in the future. A drop in yield is a common consequence of abruptly low temperatures in agricultural areas nowadays. Understanding how temperature may affect how nutrients and water are transported by plants is essential for maximizing productivity (Fig. 2).

The major significant nutrient whose transportation is influenced by down temperatures is N for a variety of reasons. First off, low temperatures alter the forms of N (NH₄⁺ or NO₃⁺⁾ in soil [115]. Low temperatures render nitrifying bacteria inactive, which raises the NH₄⁺/NO₃⁺ ratio because NH₄⁺ is less mobile. The ability of NH₄⁺ to be absorbed via the excessive-affinity transport channel is also restricted at lower temperatures. Furthermore, an investigation into the bacterium B. juncea revealed that at reduced temperatures [116], the formulation of the prime NO₃⁺ transporters and an NH₄⁺ transporter (AMT2) decreases. A reduction in temperature may also alter intracellular transportation, such as by increasing the expression of the vacuolar transporter CAX1, resulting in an elevation of cytosolic-free Ca²⁺. It has been reported that the uptake of micronutrients is influenced by low temperatures due to decreased expression of their transporters. This was observed with Mn in A. thaliana using the AtNRAMP1 transporter. Sweet pepper, has a reduction in Fe and Zn as a result of low temperatures [117]; even though there are numerous studies on the concentrations of micronutrients in plants exposed to low temperatures, there are none on their transporters. Additionally, the hydraulic conductivity of the leaves and roots is significantly altered by low temperatures; this property is governed directly by aquaporins. Recent research has examined the utilization of aquaporins to enhance resistance to low temperatures through overexpression, exemplified by the overexpression of a wheat PIP2 gene (TaAQP7) in tobacco plants, or overexpressing an aquaporin gene PIP2.7 in tobacco and banana. This finding underscores the significance of PIP2.7 in the context of cool stress response. An alternative investigation about rice plants posits that the reduced water absorption observed during frigid temperatures might be predominantly attributable to the inhibition of aquaporin activity, as opposed to an accumulation of aquaporin in the root membrane. An additional crucial factor seems to be the post-translational regulation of aquaporins. However, there is uncertainty regarding the interplay between aquaporins, other nutrient transporters, and abiotic stresses such as high temperatures. This is true even though aquaporins can transport some components. Additionally, plants often produce reactive oxygen species such as H₂O₂ and reduce nutrient delivery in response to high temperatures [118]. Recent, groundbreaking research has focused on the interaction between aquaporins and various nutrient transporters under conditions of low-temperature stress. One study suggests that the calcium-dependent protein kinase OsCPK17 may regulate aquaporins in response to cold stress. Aquaporins may therefore be associated with an increase in the formulation of the Ca²⁺ transporter-like CAX1 in vacuoles [119]. In another instance, the B remained constant despite a reduction of BOR1 protein (a B transporter), whereas NIP5.1 levels stayed consistent. This finding implies that the B order was maintained despite the stress due to the aquaporin’s stability. The P deficiency that is normally caused by cold temperatures can be remunerated by increasing the Si dispersion, which may be carried by some aquaporins as silicic acid. This was demonstrated in studies utilizing tomatoes. Previous research has shown that the transportation of Si in the form of silicic acid, along with Se, can lead to a reduction in As uptake due to competitive inhibition. The presence of Si and Se can alleviate the toxicity of As by utilizing the same transporter, Lsi1, which is an aquaporin [120].

For plants to effectively adapt to environmental stresses such as nutrient deficiency, drought, high salinity, and low temperatures, it is necessary to regulate the expression of genes responsible for nutrient transporters and aquaporins. The primary stimulus that triggers subsequent responses must thus be related to water, notwithstanding the need for more investigation into the interactions of both kinds of transporters. To understand the synchronized physiological reactions, it is important to take into account the role of aquaporins in the first detection of stress. The results outlined in this analysis emphasize many common responses. For example, a deficiency in each macro-nutrient enhances the activity of its transporter but reduces the activity of aquaporins in the plasma membrane. The absence of micronutrients leads to the relocation of tonoplast transporters from the vacuole and a reduction in the abundance of aquaporins. Furthermore, it is crucial to take into account the data indicating that some aquaporins transport essential minerals such as NH₄⁺, B, and urea to ensure the availability of nutrients under abiotic stress. The response of plants to salt and drought depends on the unique mechanism and amount of tolerance of each species. However, it can be generally observed that plants with drought tolerance tend to have increased expression of transporters and aquaporins. The intricate nature of salinity in all its facets of stress highlights the significance of several transport channels in terms of tolerance, namely reducing Na absorption while enhancing K and N intake. Aquaporins have also been shown to be essential for the transportation of water and the appropriate growth of plants in the presence of high salt levels. Hence, it is crucial to examine the collaborative functioning of nutrient transporters and aquaporins to maintain cellular homeostasis under various circumstances. Under low-temperature stress, there has been a significant decrease in the expression of aquaporin. However, it is noteworthy that PIP2.5 or PIP2.7 was consistently shown to be raised in all the studies, indicating their important role in the response. By understanding the interactions between aquaporins and mineral nutrients under environmental stress, we may enhance the efficiency of water and nutrient utilization in plants by regulating water and mineral nutrient absorption and assimilation. Further investigation is necessary to better understand the signaling and regulation of aquaporins and nutrient transport together since only modifying their combined response would enhance tolerance.