The study utilized T. iliensis, T. tianschanica and T. heterophylla as experimental materials. Plant materials were collected at the full flowering from Zhaosu County (81°0^′11^″ E, 42°49^′31^″ N) and Gongliu County (82°16^′27^″ E, 43°28^′7^″ N) in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. The sampling process ensures that the root, bulb and leaf organs are intact, and the growth and development status is normal (Fig. 1). For each wild tulip (T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla), fifteen individual plants were collected, and this constituted fifteen biological replicates each wild tulip. A total of 15 biological replicates were collected from 15 individuals of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica and T. heterophylla, respectively. The roots, bulbs, and leaves from the fifteen individuals of each species were separated and pooled by tissue type. The resulting pooled samples were then assigned the following codes (T. iliensis: YL; T. tianschanica: TS and T. heterophylla: YY). The numbered samples were placed in a constant temperature oven with a temperature of 36°C and a drying time of 48 h to ensure that the samples were completely dry. The dried samples were ground into powder and to be determined.

The sample treatment was carried out by nitric acid-perchloric acid digestion method [19]. Aliquots (0.25 g) of dried powder from different organs of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla were separately weighed into digestion tubes, followed by sequential addition of 3 mL concentrated nitric acid, 1 mL perchloric acid, and 1 mL deionized water, with a 10 min standing period. The digestion protocol comprised four temperature stages: 30 min at 100°C, 30 min at 180°C, 30 min at 280°C, and 60 min at 380°C. Following complete digestion (evidenced by clear, transparent solutions in tubes), the samples were cooled to ambient temperature, diluted to 50 mL in volumetric flasks, filtered, and homogenized for subsequent analysis. Elemental analyses were performed using standardized methods (Table 1). Each determination of mineral element content was set up three repetitions.

The mineral element content data across different organs of three wild tulips were systematically organized using Microsoft Excel 2021. One-way ANOVA analysis of variance and Duncan multiple comparison in SPSS 28.0 software were used to analyze the average content of mineral elements in roots, bulbs and leaves of three wild tulips at a 0.05 significant level. By calculating the Pearson correlation coefficient, the correlation analysis of mineral element contents in roots, bulbs and leaves of three wild tulips was carried out, and the correlation heat map was made by Origin 2021 software to visually display the correlation degree between mineral elements. SPSS 28.0 software was used to perform principal component analysis on the mineral element content of roots, bulbs and leaves of three wild tulips. The principal components were screened based on the principle of eigenvalue ≥1, and the component matrix was obtained by rotation. The comprehensive evaluation model was constructed according to the variance contribution rate. The hierarchical clustering analysis of mineral element contents in different organs of three wild tulips was carried out by the Ward clustering method using Origin 2021 software.

To elucidate the differential accumulation patterns of mineral elements across various organs, we quantified and analyzed 10 mineral elements in the roots, bulbs, and leaves of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla (Table 2). Significant differences in mineral element contents were observed among the three wild tulips’ roots. T. heterophylla exhibited significantly higher concentrations of both macroelements (N, K, P, Ca, Mg) and microelements (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn) compared to T. iliensis and T. tianschanica. Specifically, the N content in T. heterophylla reached 13,900.57 mg/kg, representing 1.30 times and 3.95 times higher concentrations compared to T. iliensis (10,667.71 mg/kg) and T. tianschanica (3517.82 mg/kg), respectively. The Ca content (11,753.99 mg/kg) in T. heterophylla was 2.71 times and 5.25 times higher than in T. iliensis (4339.20 mg/kg) and T. Tianschanica (2239.30 mg/kg), respectively. S element showed significant differences in the roots of three wild tulips, and the highest content in T. iliensis was 1006.66 mg/kg.

In bulbs, N content reached 19,639.16 mg/kg in T. tianschanica and 19,978.14 mg/kg in T. heterophylla, both significantly higher than in T. iliensis. The highest concentrations of P (2159.62 mg/kg), Ca (3448.66 mg/kg), Mg (916.13 mg/kg), Cu (8.89 mg/kg), Zn (33.28 mg/kg), and Mn (12.29 mg/kg) were all recorded in T. heterophylla. Fe content in T. iliensis (390.93 mg/kg) and T. heterophylla (386.63 mg/kg) showed no significant difference but were significantly higher than T. tianschanica (232.66 mg/kg). The highest content of S was 740.21 mg/kg in T. tianschanica.

In leaves, T. iliensis exhibited a characteristic mineral with elevated N (39,650.33 mg/kg), Mg (2303.99 mg/kg), and Fe (510.23 mg/kg) concentrations, all significantly higher than T. heterophylla and T. tianschanica. K (8350.89 mg/kg) and Ca (16,792.54 mg/kg) reached the highest value in T. heterophylla. In microelements, the contents of Cu (23.19 mg/kg), Zn (55.99 mg/kg) and Mn (234.55 mg/kg) in the leaves of T. heterophylla were significantly higher than those of T. iliensis and T. tianschanica. Through the analysis of the differences in mineral element content across various organs of three wild tulips, it was found that the mineral element content of various organs of T. heterophylla was richer than that of T. iliensis and T. tianschanica. Analysis of the coefficient of variation (CV) for 10 mineral elements in T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla revealed that Mn exhibited the strongest variability (CV = 150.22%), while the remaining 9 elements showed moderate variation intensity (CV range: 27.56%–98.10%), with Fe demonstrating the lowest variability (CV = 27.56%).

Correlation analysis was conducted to examine interrelationships among mineral elements across different organs of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla (Fig. 2). Among the 10 mineral elements in roots of the three wild tulips (Fig. 2a), significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between N and P, as well as between Ca and Zn. In bulbs (Fig. 2b), significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) were detected between P and Mg, Mg and Cu, as well as P and Cu. In leaves (Fig. 2c), significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) existed among K and Mg, K and Fe, Zn and Mn, and Mg and Fe, whereas a significant negative correlation (p < 0.05) was observed between S and Fe.

Principal component analysis was performed on 10 mineral elements across different organs (roots, bulbs, and leaves) of three wild tulips. Two principal components (PC1 and PC2) were extracted from each organ based on the criterion of eigenvalues ≥1 (Table 3). In roots, PC1 exhibited an eigenvalue of 8.576, while PC2 showed an eigenvalue of 1.424, representing 85.76% and 14.24% of the content of 10 mineral elements, respectively. The highest loading in PC1 was observed for Ca is 1.000, whereas S demonstrated the maximal loading in PC2 is 0.728. In bulbs, PC1 demonstrated an eigenvalue of 7.344 and PC2 exhibiting an eigenvalue of 2.656, representing 73.44% and 26.56% of the information of 10 mineral elements. The load values of Ca and Zn in PC1 were both 1.000, and the highest load value of S in PC2 is 0.724. In leaves, PC1 displayed an eigenvalue of 6.147 and PC2 exhibited an eigenvalue of 3.853, representing 61.47% and 38.53% of the information of 10 mineral elements. The highest loading in PC1 was observed for Ca is 0.977, while N showed the predominant loading in PC2 is 0.914. In summary, Ca, S, Zn and N are the representative mineral elements of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla.

A comprehensive evaluation model was established with the cumulative variance contribution of the two principal components as the weight. The root: PC = 0.8576PC1 + 0.1424PC2; bulb: PC = 0.7344PC1 + 0.2656PC2; leave: PC = 0.6147PC1 + 0.3853PC2. The comprehensive evaluation results of three wild tulips were as follows: T. heterophylla (5.1022) > T. iliensis (−1.3477) > T. tianschanica (−3.7545) (Table 4).

To systematically elucidate interspecific differences in mineral nutrient accumulation patterns among T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla, based on the contents of 10 mineral elements in roots, bulbs and leaves, the Ward clustering method was used to cluster the individuals with similar mineral element contents in different organs of three wild tulips (Fig. 3). Cluster analysis was performed on the mineral element content characteristics of the roots of three wild tulips (Fig. 3a). T. iliensis and T. tianschanica into one cluster due to their shared high S accumulation trait, while T. heterophylla formed a distinct separate cluster. Cluster analysis was carried out on the mineral element content characteristics of three wild tulip bulbs (Fig. 3b). T. iliensis and T. tianschanica together due to their higher S accumulation compared to T. heterophylla. Specifically, T. iliensis exhibited high accumulation of Mn and Fe, while T. tianschanica showed elevated levels of K and N, both with relatively low contents of Ca, Cu, and Mg. In contrast, T. heterophylla formed an independent cluster characterized by high accumulation of N, K, P, Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn, but lower S content. The leaves clustering pattern (Fig. 3c) differed from roots and bulbs, with T. iliensis and T. heterophylla grouped together. Both species exhibited higher accumulation of N, P, Fe, and Mg, while T. heterophylla additionally showed superior accumulation of K, Ca, Cu, Zn, and Mn, though with consistently low S content. T. tianschanica formed a separate cluster due to its uniquely higher S accumulation compared to the other two wild tulips.

Wild tulips, abundant in diverse mineral elements and bioactive compounds, possess significant medicinal value with promising applications in functional food development and traditional Chinese herbal medicine innovation [25]. Wild tulips contain colchicine, tuliposide and other alkaloids. Colchicine is an important bioactive compound in Chinese herbal medicine and has anti-inflammatory effect [26]. Tuliposide A, B, C have inhibitory effect on Bacillus subtilis [27]. Tulipa Systola, which grows between rocks in Iraqi Kurdistan, is popular as an anti-inflammatory and painkiller [28]. The total flavonoids extracted from tulips have good antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [29]. The bulbs of wild tulips are rich in protein, starch, crude fiber, polysaccharide, vitamin C and calcium, its bulbs have the effects of clearing heat, detoxification, resolving masses and removing blood stasis, and can treat symptoms such as sore throat [30]. These further verify the edible and medicinal value of tulips.

Taking macronutrients as an example, the normal concentration of N content in plant dry matter is defined as being between 10,000 and 30,000 mg/kg [31]. In this study, the N content in the leaves of T. iliensis was determined to be 39,650.33 mg/kg, which exceeded the normal range. The normal concentration of K content in plant dry matter is defined as being between 2000 and 6000 mg/kg. In this study, the K content in the bulbs and roots of T. heterophylla was 5703.84 and 3139.09 mg/kg, respectively, both within the normal range. In contrast, the K content in the leaves was 8350.89 mg/kg, exceeding the normal range, indicating differential accumulation patterns of mineral elements across different organs of wild tulips. Among trace elements, the normal concentration of Fe in plant dry matter is defined as being between 50 and 250 mg/kg. In this study, the Fe content in the leaves of all three wild tulips exceeded the normal range, with values between 332.37 and 510.23 mg/kg, demonstrating a strong capacity for Fe enrichment in their leaves. The average Fe content was 74.3 times higher than that found in the leaves of Malva sylvestris [32]. The normal concentration of Zn content in plant dry matter is defined as being between 5 and 20 mg/kg. In this study, the Zn content in the bulbs of the three wild tulips ranged from 11.47 to 33.28 mg/kg, with an average concentration 61 times that of the zinc-rich fruit apple (Malus pumila Mill.) [33]. This finding further confirms that the mineral element content varies across different plant organs. Among the ten mineral elements analyzed, Mn was classified as highly variable, indicating substantial variation across different wild tulips and their organs. The remaining nine mineral elements exhibited moderate variability, with Fe, P, and K showing the lowest coefficients of variation, suggesting relative stability across the different wild tulips. The change of rich mineral elements is the material basis for wild tulips to complete their life cycle, which is involved in regulating its various biological activities, so that wild tulips have more potential value to be developed.

The correlation between the elements shows that the elements play an important role in maintaining the balance between the elements [34,35]. Significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between N and P, as well as Ca and Zn in roots of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica, and T. heterophylla. In bulbs, P and Mg, P and Cu, Mg and Cu showed pairwise positive correlations (p < 0.05), while leaves exhibited significant correlations between K and Mg, K and Fe, Zn and Mn, and Mg and Fe (p < 0.05) (Fig. 2). These findings suggest synergistic absorption mechanisms among these elements in roots, bulbs, and leaves of the three wild tulips. These findings are consistent with previous studies on mineral element correlations in Lilium spp. [36], Actinidia chinensis Planch. [37], and Ardisia elliptica Thunb. [15], demonstrating similar inter-element relationships across plant species. It is worth noting that S was significantly negatively correlated with Fe in the leaves of three wild tulips (p < 0.05), indicating that there is antagonism between S and Fe. This phenomenon may be attributed to distinct edaphic conditions and environmental factors, such as soil pH, redox potential in the habitats of T. iliensis, T. tianschanica and T. heterophylla, which collectively influence the bioavailability and plant uptake of S and Fe, ultimately resulting in their negative correlation [38]. Alternatively, the differential ion uptake in plants is mediated by specific transporter proteins [39], in the three wild tulips leaves, S and Fe may compete for shared transporters or transport channels. When the supply of S in the environment is sufficient, it will occupy more transport sites, thus inhibiting the absorption of Fe.

While significant progress has been made in tulip research in recent years, particularly in areas such as flowering regulation [40] and flower senescence [41], it is crucial to note that mineral elements are vital components of enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and other active substances, playing an indispensable role in plant growth [42]. The content of mineral elements in plants has garnered widespread attention as a key indicator for assessing their development potential [43]. The rich mineral element content in Daphne altaica Pall. serves as a significant indicator for evaluating its medicinal value [44]. The mineral element content in Paeonia lactiflora Pall. can serve as an important indicator for evaluating its metabolic activity [45]. Evaluating wild tulips based on variations in their mineral element profiles holds potential significance for understanding individual survival and reproduction, as well as the distribution and adaptability within natural communities.