Roads have always played a crucial role in driving economic growth by facilitating trade, commerce, and connectivity. While current highways are essential to international trade, ancient trade routes allowed the interchange of products, ideas, and cultures across other civilizations. These road networks act as the arteries of commerce, ensuring the seamless movement of products from production sites to markets, both locally and globally [17]. This connectivity not only boosts trade but also stimulates investment and innovation, leading to economic diversification and growth. Roads are also key in opening up previously inaccessible areas, fostering regional development and integrating local economies into national and global markets. The development and maintenance of road networks are fundamental to economic prosperity and the interconnectedness of the modern world [5]. Furthermore, the global significance of road infrastructure intersects with various economic theories. Roads are considered essential in development economics, facilitating trade and market access, key drivers in classical and neoclassical theories. Studies have shown a positive correlation between road infrastructure and economic development, with improved networks leading to increased economic activity and productivity [18]. The World Bank and other international organizations emphasize the role of transportation infrastructure in poverty reduction and socio-economic development, underlining roads as critical assets in sustainable development and global economic prosperity.

The social impact of road networks extends well beyond mere connectivity, influencing urban expansion, accessibility in remote areas, and the dynamics of human settlement and interaction [19]. In urban settings, road infrastructure is pivotal in urban planning, enabling city expansion and shaping residential and commercial development. It is essential to the suburbanization process, influencing the growth of peripheral areas and land use patterns [20]. In rural areas, roads are instrumental in bridging the accessibility gap, bringing essential services and economic opportunities to remote communities, fostering social inclusion, and improving quality of life. Moreover, roads facilitate cultural exchange and social interaction, connecting diverse communities and promoting understanding and integration. The evolution of road networks is closely linked to social development, shaping how communities interact, grow, and evolve [21]. Their development reflects and influences societal priorities and values, showcasing the integral role of transportation infrastructure in social progress and cohesion. Transportation represents the most significant sector for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the United States, constituting about 29% of the total emissions. Given that freight transportation accounts for nearly 70% of all domestic freight volume, and personal vehicles comprise 87% of passenger transportation by mode, the role of pavements becomes crucial in the sustainability of transportation systems. Pavements are indispensable in facilitating the movement of people and goods, thus playing a pivotal role in modern society [22].

Traditional road construction and maintenance pose significant environmental challenges, including extensive land use, high resource consumption, and pollution. The process often leads to habitat disruption, affecting biodiversity and ecosystems [19]. The large-scale use of materials like asphalt and concrete not only consumes substantial natural resources but also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Fig. 4 shows the greenhouse gas index value increasing over the years. Moreover, road infrastructure can lead to soil erosion, water runoff issues, and pollution from construction activities and vehicular emissions. These environmental impacts necessitate a re-evaluation of road construction practices and a shift towards more sustainable methods that minimize ecological footprints. Moreover, the ecological footprint of roads extends to various environmental aspects. Habitat disruption is a major concern, as road construction often leads to the fragmentation of ecosystems, adversely affecting wildlife and plant species [5]. Roads contribute significantly to carbon emissions, both from the construction process and the vehicles they support. When considering the global climate change scenario, this element is crucial. Additionally, roads play a notable role in developing urban heat island phenomenon, with materials like asphalt absorbing and radiating heat, thereby elevating urban temperatures. These ecological considerations are pivotal in assessing the overall environmental impact of road infrastructure. Nonetheless, the idea of sustainable road design has been apparent as a key solution in response to these environmental concerns [23]. This approach encompasses the use of eco-friendly materials and construction techniques that minimize environmental impacts. Sustainable road design aims to reduce carbon emissions, limit habitat disruption, and address the issue of urban heat islands. It incorporates innovative practices like using permeable materials, greenery integration, and advanced planning to preserve natural landscapes [24]. This shift towards sustainable infrastructure reflects a growing recognition of the need to balance development with environmental stewardship. In India, the environmental impacts associated with road infrastructures reveal that constructing flexible pavements results in a 63% greater impact on the abiotic depletion of fossil resources compared to other types. Rigid pavements, on the other hand, have a 47% higher impact on acidification, a 198% increase in global warming potential, and a 689% rise in human toxicity effects. Additionally, the maintenance phase of flexible pavements shows elevated environmental impacts. In terms of CO₂ emissions, Major District Road (MDR) rigid pavements reduce CO₂ through albedo and carbonation effects by 69.60 and 18.97 tones, respectively. Conversely, Major District Roads with flexible pavements are responsible for releasing 345 tones of CO₂. Furthermore, deforestation linked to these projects results in a significant carbon sink loss, amounting to 76 and 228 tones of CO₂ equivalents per kilometer for flexible and rigid pavements, respectively. An uncertainty analysis of this study underlines the reliability of these findings, indicating a standard deviation of less than 5% [25].

Technological innovations in road construction have significantly advanced, encompassing the use of advanced materials and intelligent systems. Developments include eco-friendly materials that reduce environmental impact and enhance durability [26]. Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) have been integrated, utilizing sensors and AI to manage traffic flow and enhance safety. Additionally, the incorporation of smart city integrations, like real-time data analysis and connectivity with urban infrastructure, has improved efficiency and sustainability in road usage and maintenance [27]. These innovations represent a shift towards more responsive, sustainable, and technologically advanced road networks. These technological advancements in road construction have markedly improved efficiency, safety, and sustainability. Advanced materials have led to longer-lasting roads, reducing the need for frequent repairs and thus cutting down resource use and disruption [16]. Intelligent transportation systems enhance traffic management, significantly improving road safety and reducing congestion, which in turn lowers vehicle emissions. Moreover, smart city integrations facilitate better coordination between road use and urban infrastructure, optimizing energy use and contributing to overall urban sustainability. These innovations collectively signify a major stride towards creating more efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly road networks. This historical and technological context sets the stage for a deeper exploration of sustainable pavements, an essential element in contemporary urban planning. The growing awareness of the environmental impacts of traditional road construction has spurred the need for environmentally friendly and efficient road solutions [28]. Sustainable pavements represent a convergence of ecological responsibility and technological innovation, aiming to address the challenges of urban heat islands, carbon emissions, and resource conservation [29]. This shift is not just a response to environmental imperatives but also a proactive step towards creating more sustainable urban spaces for future generations.

Fig. 5 depicts cross-sectional views of pavement mechanisms in operation. Arrows, marked with letters in each subplot, illustrate the simplified energy balance for each pavement type, formulated as SW↓ − SW↑ + LW = G + H + LE. Here, SW↓ symbolizes downward shortwave radiation (solar radiation), SW↑ indicates upward shortwave radiation (reflected), LW refers to net longwave radiation, G is for heat conduction, H represents sensible heat flux, and LE stands for latent heat flux [14].

Conventional pavements, covering about 40% of urban areas, significantly influence urban heat dynamics due to their dark colour, which enhances heat absorption and re-radiation [31]. Studies reveal that pavements can reach temperatures upwards of 60 degrees Celsius in summer [34]. Typically, pavements are categorized into three types: flexible, rigid, and composite (a mix of flexible and rigid). Flexible pavements comprise a surface layer, base, and subbase, all laid over the subgrade. Conversely, rigid pavements primarily utilize concrete in the surface layer, foregoing the base layer. Occasionally, rigid pavements are topped with a thin asphalt layer, creating a rigid-flexible composite [35]. This combination offers the benefits of asphalt’s driving comfort and longevity with the structural support of a rigid base for heavy traffic loads.

Cool pavements have lower surface temperatures compared to conventional pavements such as dense graded asphalt or concrete pavement with a low albedo. Research has repeatedly demonstrated that in comparison to traditional pavements, cool pavement’s benefits extend beyond temperature control. They contribute to energy savings, lower emissions, enhanced public health and comfort, increased road longevity and safety, improved water quality, noise reduction, and a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions [17]. These attributes position cool pavements as a comprehensive solution for urban environmental challenges and a key strategy in combating the urban heat island effect [39]. In addition to their environmental benefits, cool pavements offer improved construction performance and enhanced longevity. High temperatures in summer can lead to rutting and aging in asphalt pavements, while cement concrete pavements are at risk of thermal cracking due to increased surface temperatures [40]. Several types of cool pavements have been identified through research. Reflective pavements, known for their higher albedo, absorb less solar radiation and, consequently, have lower surface temperatures during the day. To increase pavement reflectance and attain cooling effects, various strategies have been employed. These include applying reflective or infrared-reflective paints over the pavement surface or aggregates, using color-changing (thermochromic) paints/coatings, or incorporating alternative materials like slag in concrete pavements. Notably, conventional concrete pavements, with their relatively high albedo, naturally function as cool pavements. However, adding slag can further improve their reflectance.

Another technique to mitigate the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect involves the use of permeable pavements. In contrast to impervious surfaces, permeable pavements facilitate evaporative cooling—using thermal energy to vaporize water and thus reduce heat absorption, lowering surface temperatures. These pavements, particularly those with high porosity or air void content, typically exhibit lower thermal inertia and conductivity than conventional pavements. Pavements that incorporate phase change materials (PCMs) generally possess a greater heat capacity and thermal inertia, allowing them to store significant amounts of heat as latent heat. This ability helps in reducing the daytime surface temperature and retaining warmth at night. The efficacy of PCM-embedded pavements depends on both the material types and PCM structures.

Additionally, heat-harvesting pavements, designed to transform absorbed solar radiation into renewable and sustainable energy, are being developed. Examples include photovoltaic pavements and pavements with integrated water pipes, such as hydronic asphalt. For example, pipes within asphalt solar collectors containing circulating fluid can reduce the pavement surface temperature via heat transfer. The harvested thermal energy is useful for applications like snow melting or maintaining indoor thermal comfort. Pavements with specially oriented heat conduction structures are designed to lower daytime surface temperature and reduce heat release at night. It is crucial to recognize that these technologies are in developmental stages and have not yet been widely implemented. The life-cycle costs and benefits of such technologies are still to be fully understood.

It is a new development aimed at mitigating the urban heat island effect and managing stormwater in cities with high groundwater levels. These pavements are designed with superior capillary capacity, enabling them to maintain evaporation for longer periods compared to conventional permeable pavements, which typically have a shorter post-rain evaporation duration [3]. Water-retaining pavements, a specialized variant in pavement technology, are engineered to hold water over longer periods compared to traditional permeable pavements. This capability is particularly significant in addressing the quick infiltration of water through pervious concrete. While they share a similar porosity with permeable pavements, water-retaining pavements have notably lower water permeability. The key materials used in these pavements are asphalt or cement, enhanced with various fillers that aid in water retention. After rainfall, these pavements are adept at staying cooler than their permeable counterparts due to their unique water retention properties. The effectiveness of water-retaining pavements in cooling the air-surface is maximized when water is held in a surface layer approximately 25 millimeters deep, leveraging the capillary action from the sub-base to draw water up to the surface layer, compensating for any water deficit there [49,58]. This characteristic makes water-retaining pavements a strategic choice in urban areas for mitigating heat and managing water runoff. Fig. 9 shows the comparison between traditional and enhancing permeable pavements.

A novel technology involves embedding steel rods with high thermal conductivity at different levels within the pavement to facilitate heat transfer from the upper layers to the lower ones, thereby reducing surface temperature and heat accumulation. This method not only decreases the impact on the air surface at ground level but also strengthens the pavement structure, enhancing rutting resistance and extending its service life [59].

UHI represents a critical global issue impacting the functionality and habitability of urban areas and ecosystems. Although extensively researched, our understanding of UHI is still evolving, particularly with recent focus on global warming, urban temperature increases, and improved analytical techniques. Cities exhibit noticeably higher temperatures than their rural counterparts, a phenomenon termed “heat island effect” [34]. Recent publications in the prestigious journal “IEEE Transaction on Fuzzy Systems” have elaborated on this subject [60].

The rise in temperature of surfaces in urban areas, including materials like asphalt and concrete used in constructions and streets, is a primary factor contributing to the UHI phenomenon [61].

This pertains to the temperature from the ground surface up to 1.5 meters. The reflectance of surfaces significantly influences air temperature at this level, with a 0.30 increase in albedo of asphalt and concrete pavements potentially reducing air temperature by up to 2.0°C during hot summers [62].

Variations in urban design, including spatial arrangements and morphological features like orientation and height-to-width ratios, significantly affect air temperature cooling through cool pavement applications [62].

The aging of pavement alters its reflectance value, either increasing or decreasing based on the material composition [37,62]. Aging influences albedo measurements and thus impacts reflectance.

The characteristics of pavement surfaces, such as color, texture, and material properties, play a role in heat island development. Permeable paving materials, especially, show significant water absorption influenced by physical features like pore structure and rainfall conditions [2,63].

Pavement technologies can reduce heat storage and surface temperatures, thus lowering sensible heat transfer to the environment. Environmental elements like rain, wind, and sunlight are considered in albedo studies, which are influenced by weathering [62]. Energy demand in summers correlates with increased air pollution from power generation [64].

The absorption of solar radiation causes heat transfer from pavement to air during the day, but this process almost ceases at night when the surface temperature aligns with the ambient air temperature [65]. Concrete pavements exhibit lower daytime temperatures than grass or gravel but higher temperatures at night.

Certain cool pavement strategies are more effective in summer but may reduce warmth in winter. In summers, conventional impervious pavements reach surface temperatures as high as 65°C–80°C. Various cool pavement technologies have been assessed for their impact on human comfort in different climates [66].

The influence of light, especially sunshine, on pavement surface temperatures is significant. Long-term exposure to heat in hot climes can cause pavements to overheat, which can result in issues including thermal expansion, rutting, and asphalt binder degradation. On the other hand, less sunshine exposure in colder regions may result in lower pavement temperatures, which may have an impact on the pavement’s flexibility and toughness [43].

Outdoor human comfort, particularly at the pedestrian level, is adversely affected by high pavement and air temperatures in summers, leading to environmental stress and health concerns [66].

The design of a pavement determines its strength, including the ability to withstand a specific axle load over its lifetime. Structural properties like stiffness, strength, endurance, and fatigue resistance are considered beyond traditional empirical designs [12]. Flexible pavements are designed to adapt under load, while rigid pavements resist deformation [67].

Cool pavements improve driving safety by offering better tire-road resistance and visibility after rain. Additional factors affecting road safety include road cleanliness, traffic speed, and visibility [11].

The production of hot mix asphalt (HMA) requires heating aggregates and binders to temperatures between 121.1°C and 176.6°C [17]. Reflective materials can enhance energy efficiency and reduce the UHI effect, leading to energy savings [18].

The initial cost of a project, or Capex, influences pavement type selection. Asphalt pavements are popular for their lower initial costs and shorter construction times compared to other types [11,43].

Ongoing project expenses, or Opex, include maintenance costs. Porous pavements require regular maintenance to prevent clogging [11]. Concrete pavements are more durable and require less maintenance. The combined Capex and Opex constitute the Total Expenditure (Totex) for a project.

The ease of implementation is critical in choosing pavement types, especially in areas with anticipated utility works post-construction [66,35]. Increasing shade on pavements can significantly lower surface temperatures and improve thermal comfort [34].

The performance of pavements is influenced by weather, with cool pavements potentially having different effects in winter and summer [66]. Wind and water also significantly affect the UHI phenomenon [34].

These factors collectively inform the decision-making process in pavement selection, ensuring that the chosen type not only meets immediate functional requirements but also aligns with broader environmental, economic, and social goals.

A new unified Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) framework has been established within the Dual Hesitant Fuzzy Set (DHFS) context. This framework incorporates DH-Fuzzy Weighted Zero-Inclusion Criterion (DH-FWZIC) and DH-Fuzzy Dominance and Opposition-based Similarity Measure (DH-FDOSM) to adeptly manage imprecise and vague scenarios. These innovative methodologies have been applied for assigning weights to pavement evaluation criteria and for prioritizing different pavement alternatives, respectively. The selection of an advanced pavement type is crucial for fostering sustainable transportation. However, the process is complex due to the multitude of evaluation criteria, the interplay and conflict between these criteria, and the categorization of their importance. To address these challenges, the MCDM approach has been effectively utilized [60].

The newly proposed framework addresses the critical need for a quantitative method to assist in selecting systems that are resilient to climate change and the rapid pace of urbanization. It focuses on mitigating these challenges by proposing ten key indicators, such as expenditure, social acceptability, and various environmental controls. These indicators are weighted and ranked using an enhanced Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), providing a structured method to compare and prioritize sustainable urban solutions [68].

The framework’s design incorporates both the AHP and multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT) to facilitate the ranking of extensive pavement networks. This allows for the inclusion of multiple objectives related to sustainability, granting decision-makers the ability to select, weight, and define objectives even in scenarios where expert judgment is not available. This flexibility is crucial for accommodating a range of expert opinions and ensuring comprehensive decision-making [69].

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been applied effectively to identify the most sustainable building materials. By drawing on rating scales, previous research, and expert opinions, the AHP serves as a guide in the pursuit of environmentally friendly pavement management methods. This has led to the creation of an integrated model for assessing life cycle costs and environmental impacts of pavements, emphasizing the importance of sustainability in construction [70,71].

Innovative multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) techniques are utilized to streamline complex multiple-response problems into single-response optimization problems. This approach includes the evaluation of fiber-reinforced porous asphalt mixtures, where a combination of experimental design and MCDM analysis is applied. Sensitivity analysis plays a pivotal role in understanding the impact of varying parameter weights on the alternatives’ rankings, thus guiding decision-makers towards the most sustainable pavement options [72–74].

The adoption of fuzzy AHP and VIKOR models has enhanced the prioritization and ranking processes in pavement maintenance activities. By focusing on expert opinions and utilizing fuzzy comparison matrices, a comprehensive system for evaluating and ranking pavement repair options has been established, allowing for a structured approach to maintenance prioritization [75,76].

Urban morphology and seasonal changes are critical factors affecting pavement performance. The orientation and height-to-width ratio of urban canyons influence the amount of solar radiation received and thus the temperature within the canyons. This has implications for the effectiveness of cool pavements, particularly in terms of their ability to mitigate the urban heat island effect during different seasons [77–79].

The transition towards eco-friendly pavement technologies that offer cost-effective solutions is emphasized. This includes assessing the costs of different pavement materials and the development of a methodology that uses superiority and inferiority ranking to determine the most sustainable option. Such advancements signify a shift towards sustainable infrastructure that aligns with environmental stewardship [15,80].

The integration of decision support systems in pavement management reflects a commitment to sustainability. These systems utilize life cycle cost assessments and multi-criteria decision-making methods like TOPSIS and WASPAS to evaluate additives used in porous concrete pavements, leading to an informed selection that balances mechanical performance with safety concerns [81,82].

The expansion of multi-criteria decision-making into fuzzy set theory is a direct response to addressing the ambiguity and imprecision often associated with decision-maker hesitancy. By introducing dual hesitant fuzzy sets (DHFS), decision-makers can express their preferences across a spectrum of membership grades, allowing for a more nuanced and accurate reflection of their judgments in group decision-making contexts [83–85].

The overview of the literature culminates in a detailed synthesis that integrates the various methodologies and frameworks discussed throughout the paper. This includes an examination of dual hesitant fuzzy sets, fuzzy decision by opinion score methods, and the fuzzy-weighted zero-inconsistency method, all of which contribute to a holistic multi-criteria decision-making framework [86].

Reflective cracking mitigation is a pivotal concern in extending the life of asphalt concrete overlays. Life cycle cost (LCC) assessments paired with multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods offer robust strategies to evaluate the effectiveness of reflective cracking mitigation methods. This comprehensive assessment ensures the selection of the most efficient and sustainable overlay techniques [42].

The life-cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) framework with an uncertainty focus is a forward-thinking approach that captures the full range of economic, environmental, and social uncertainties across a pavement’s lifecycle. It provides a vital tool for stakeholders to evaluate the sustainability of pavement alternatives, taking into account long-term impacts and resilience [21].

The assessment and selection of pavement types are complex, with a need to balance environmental impacts against economic realities. A multi-criteria decision-making model that integrates economic, environmental, and social factors is crucial for achieving sustainable urban development and addressing the challenges posed by urban heat islands [87].

A novel strategy for selecting urban flood mitigation solutions employs a multi-criteria analysis framework. By reducing flood risk, minimizing costs, and maximizing benefits, this approach ensures the selection of strategies that offer the best protection for urban environments while also providing additional advantages [88].

The heat island effect poses a significant challenge to urban environments, leading to higher temperatures and increased energy usage. Cool pavements are an innovative solution that can reduce the heat island effect, with a variety of materials and designs available to suit different urban settings [74,89].

Sustainable pavements not only improve environmental outcomes but also enhance road safety and performance. The selection of pavement materials and designs can significantly impact tire-road resistance, night-time visibility, and overall driving safety, making it an essential consideration in sustainable urban planning [90,91].

The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a valuable tool in the selection of dust palliatives and the prioritization of maintenance activities. By providing a structured approach to compare and rank various options, AHP facilitates informed decision-making in pavement management [92].

The Interactive Multi Objective Optimization-Dominance Rough Set Approach (IMO-DRSA) offers a novel methodology for dialogue with decision-makers. By providing a nuanced approach to optimization, it aids in aligning pavement management strategies with broader sustainability goals [93].

The conceptual framework for a low-cost pavement management system (PMS) presents a cost-effective approach to pavement management for developing countries. This framework offers a practical solution for the maintenance and management of pavements, ensuring longevity and performance [94].

Fuzzy set theories like the dual hesitant fuzzy sets (DHFS) provide a nuanced approach to address the uncertainty in group decision-making scenarios. By allowing a range of membership grades, these theories offer a more flexible and comprehensive framework for expressing preferences and judgments [83,95].

Essentially, the methodologies outlined in the literature reflect a collective advancement in the sustainability and efficiency of pavement analysis. Through a variety of studies employing methods from AHP to TOPSIS, the weighting and ranking of pavement options has been significantly refined. These approaches, as detailed in Table 1: showing the Weighting and Ranking methods, provide a critical foundation for informed decision-making in pavement management.

There is a need for ongoing research into new and innovative eco-friendly materials for pavement construction. This includes materials that are not only environmentally sustainable but also cost-effective and suitable for various urban conditions.

The paper highlights the complexities involved in implementing sustainable pavement technologies. Future research could focus on developing more streamlined and practical implementation strategies that address these complexities, particularly in diverse urban settings.

A significant gap exists in the integration of different disciplines in pavement technology development. Research that brings together urban planners, engineers, and environmental scientists could lead to more holistic and effective pavement solutions.

The use of Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) frameworks in selecting optimal pavement solutions is crucial. There is room for improvement in these frameworks to make them more comprehensive, incorporating a wider range of criteria including long-term environmental impacts and socio-economic factors.

The study focuses on the urban heat island effect. Research into more advanced pavement technologies that specifically address this issue, including the development of materials and designs that minimize heat absorption and improve urban thermal comfort, is needed.

There is a research opportunity in conducting detailed life cycle analyses and sustainability assessments of different pavement materials and technologies. This would provide a clearer understanding of the long-term impacts and benefits of various pavement options.

Research could also focus on developing policies and regulations that support the adoption of sustainable pavement technologies. This includes incentives for using eco-friendly materials and guidelines for urban development that prioritize environmental sustainability.

There is a continuous need for technological innovation in pavement materials and construction methods. Research into smart pavements that incorporate sensors and IoT technologies for monitoring and maintenance could be a potential area of focus.

Finally, increasing public awareness and education on the importance of sustainable pavement technologies is crucial. Research into effective communication strategies and educational programs could support broader acceptance and adoption of these technologies.

These research opportunities, if pursued, could significantly contribute to the advancement of sustainable urban infrastructure and address key environmental and societal challenges associated with urban development.